Apollo is one of the Olympian deities in ancient Greek religion and mythology. His numerous functions include light, healing, prophecy, music, poetry, and archery. He is the son of Leto and Zeus, and the twin brother of Artemis, goddess of the hunt. He is considered to be the most beautiful god and is represented as the ideal of the kouros (ephebe, or a beardless, athletic youth). As the patron deity of Delphi (Apollo Pythios), Apollo is an oracular god—the prophetic deity of the Delphic Oracle and the deity of ritual purification. His oracles were often consulted for guidance in various matters. He was in general seen as the god who affords help and wards off evil, and is referred to as Alexicacus, the "averter of evil". Medicine and healing are associated with Apollo, whether through the god himself or mediated through his son Asclepius. Apollo delivered people from epidemics, yet he is also a god who could bring ill health and deadly plague with his arrows. The invention of archery itself is credited to Apollo and his sister Artemis. Apollo is usually described as carrying a silver or golden bow and a quiver of arrows. As the god of mousike, Apollo presides over all music, songs, dance, and poetry. He is the inventor of string-music and the frequent companion of the Muses, functioning as their chorus leader in celebrations. The lyre is a common attribute of Apollo. Protection of the young is one of the best attested facets of his panhellenic cult persona. As a kourotrophos, Apollo is concerned with the health and education of children, and he presided over their passage into adulthood. Long hair, which was the prerogative of boys, was cut at the coming of age (ephebeia) and dedicated to Apollo. The god himself is depicted with long, uncut hair to symbolise his eternal youth. Apollo is an important pastoral deity, and he was the patron of herdsmen and shepherds. Protection of herds, flocks and crops from diseases, pests and predators were his primary rustic duties. On the other hand, Apollo also encouraged the founding of new towns and the establishment of civil constitutions, is associated with dominion over colonists, and was the giver of laws. His oracles were often consulted before setting laws in a city. Apollo Agyieus was the protector of the streets, public places and home entrances. In the 5th century BC, his worship was imported to Rome.
From the 5th century BCE, Apollo was often identified with Helios, the personification of the Sun. Although Latin theological works from at least 1st century BCE identified Apollo with Sol, there was no conflation between the two among the classical Latin poets until 1st century CE. Apollo is known in Greek-influenced Etruscan mythology as Apulu.
Etymology
Apollo (Attic, Ionic, and Homeric Greek: Ἀπόλλων, Apollōn (GEN Ἀπόλλωνος); Doric: Ἀπέλλων, Apellōn; Arcadocypriot: Ἀπείλων, Apeilōn; Aeolic: Ἄπλουν, Aploun; Latin: Apollō) The name Apollo—unlike Paean, the related older name—is generally not found in the Linear B (Mycenean Greek) texts, although there is a possible attestation in the lacunose form ]pe-rjo-[ (Linear B: ]𐀟𐁊-[) on the KN E 842 tablet, though it has also been suggested that the name might actually read "Hyperion" ([u]-pe-rjo-[ne]). The etymology of the name is unclear. The spelling Ἀπόλλων (pronounced [a.pól.lɔːn] in Classical Attic) had almost superseded all other forms by the beginning of the common era, but the Doric form, Apellon (Ἀπέλλων), is more archaic, as it is derived from an earlier *Ἀπέλjων. It probably is a cognate to the Doric month Apellaios (Ἀπελλαῖος), and the offerings apellaia (ἀπελλαῖα) at the initiation of the young men during the family-festival apellai (ἀπέλλαι). According to some scholars, the words are derived from the Doric word apella (ἀπέλλα), which originally meant "wall", "fence for animals" and later "assembly within the limits of the square". Apella (Ἀπέλλα) is the name of the popular assembly in Sparta, corresponding to the ecclesia (ἐκκλησία). R. S. P. Beekes rejected the connection of the theonym with the noun apellai and suggested a Pre-Greek proto-form *Apalyun. Several instances of popular etymology are attested by ancient authors. Thus, the Greeks most often associated Apollo's name with the Greek verb ἀπόλλυμι (apollymi), "to destroy". Plato in Cratylus connects the name with ἀπόλυσις (apolysis), "redemption", with ἀπόλουσις (apolousis), "purification", and with ἁπλοῦν ([h]aploun), "simple", in particular in reference to the Thessalian form of the name, Ἄπλουν, and finally with Ἀειβάλλων (aeiballon), "ever-shooting". Hesychius connects the name Apollo with the Doric ἀπέλλα (apella), which means "assembly", so that Apollo would be the god of political life, and he also gives the explanation σηκός (sekos), "fold", in which case Apollo would be the god of flocks and herds. In the ancient Macedonian language πέλλα (pella) means "stone", and some toponyms may be derived from this word: Πέλλα (Pella, the capital of ancient Macedonia) and Πελλήνη (Pellēnē/Pellene). The Hittite form Apaliunas (dx-ap-pa-li-u-na-aš) is attested in the Manapa-Tarhunta letter. The Hittite testimony reflects an early form *Apeljōn, which may also be surmised from the comparison of Cypriot Ἀπείλων with Doric Ἀπέλλων. The name of the Lydian god Qλdãns /kʷʎðãns/ may reflect an earlier /kʷalyán-/ before palatalization, syncope, and the pre-Lydian sound change *y > d. Note the labiovelar in place of the labial /p/ found in pre-Doric Ἀπέλjων and Hittite Apaliunas. A Luwian etymology suggested for Apaliunas makes Apollo "The One of Entrapment", perhaps in the sense of "Hunter".
Greco-Roman epithets Apollo's chief epithet was Phoebus ( FEE-bəs; Φοῖβος, Phoibos Greek pronunciation: [pʰó͜i.bos]), literally "bright". It was very commonly used by both the Greeks and Romans for Apollo's role as the god of light. Like other Greek deities, he had a number of others applied to him, reflecting the variety of roles, duties, and aspects ascribed to the god. However, while Apollo has a great number of appellations in Greek myth, only a few occur in Latin literature.
Sun Aegletes ( ə-GLEE-teez; Αἰγλήτης, Aiglētēs), from αἴγλη, "light of the Sun" Helius ( HEE-lee-əs; Ἥλιος, Helios), literally "Sun" Lyceus ( ly-SEE-əs; Λύκειος, Lykeios, from Proto-Greek *λύκη), "light". The meaning of the epithet "Lyceus" later became associated with Apollo's mother Leto, who was the patron goddess of Lycia (Λυκία) and who was identified with the wolf (λύκος). Phanaeus ( fə-NEE-əs; Φαναῖος, Phanaios), literally "giving or bringing light" Phoebus ( FEE-bəs; Φοῖβος, Phoibos), literally "bright", his most commonly used epithet by both the Greeks and Romans Sol (Roman) ( ), "Sun" in Latin
Wolf Lycegenes ( ly-SEJ-ən-eez; Λυκηγενής, Lukēgenēs), literally "born of a wolf" or "born of Lycia" Lycoctonus ( ly-KOK-tə-nəs; Λυκοκτόνος, Lykoktonos), from λύκος, "wolf", and κτείνειν, "to kill"
Origin and birth Apollo's birthplace was Mount Cynthus on the island of Delos.
Cynthius ( SIN-thee-əs; Κύνθιος, Kunthios), literally "Cynthian" Cynthogenes ( sin-THOJ-in-eez; Κυνθογενής, Kynthogenēs), literally "born of Cynthus" Delius ( DEE-lee-əs; Δήλιος, Delios), literally "Delian" Didymaeus ( DID-im-EE-əs; Διδυμαῖος, Didymaios) from δίδυμος, "twin", as the twin of Artemis
Place of worship Delphi and Actium were his primary places of worship.
Acraephius ( ə-KREE-fee-əs; Ἀκραίφιος, Akraiphios, literally "Acraephian") or Acraephiaeus ( ə-KREE-fee-EE-əs; Ἀκραιφιαίος, Akraiphiaios), "Acraephian", from the Boeotian town of Acraephia (Ἀκραιφία), reputedly founded by his son Acraepheus. Actiacus ( ak-TY-ə-kəs; Ἄκτιακός, Aktiakos), literally "Actian", after Actium (Ἄκτιον) Delphinius ( del-FIN-ee-əs; Δελφίνιος, Delphinios), literally "Delphic", after Delphi (Δελφοί). An etiology in the Homeric Hymns associated this with dolphins. Epactaeus, meaning "god worshipped on the coast", in Samos. Pythius ( PITH-ee-əs; Πύθιος, Puthios, from Πυθώ, Pythō), from the region around Delphi Smintheus ( SMIN-thewss; Σμινθεύς, Smintheus), "Sminthian"—that is, "of the town of Sminthos or Sminthe" near the Troad town of Hamaxitus Napaian Apollo (Ἀπόλλων Ναπαῖος), from the city of Nape at the island of Lesbos Eutresites, from the city of Eutresis.
Ixios (Ἴξιος), derived from a district in Rhodes called Ixiae or Ixia.
Healing and disease
Acesius ( ə-SEE-zhəs; Ἀκέσιος, Akesios), from ἄκεσις, "healing". Acesius was the epithet of Apollo worshipped in Elis, where he had a temple in the agora. Acestor ( ə-SESS-tər; Ἀκέστωρ, Akestōr), literally "healer" Culicarius (Roman) ( KEW-lih-KARR-ee-əs), from Latin culicārius, "of midges" Iatrus ( eye-AT-rəs; Ἰατρός, Iātros), literally "physician" Medicus (Roman) ( MED-ik-əs), "physician" in Latin. A temple was dedicated to Apollo Medicus in Rome, probably next to the temple of Bellona. Paean ( PEE-ən; Παιάν, Paiān), physician, healer Parnopius ( par-NOH-pee-əs; Παρνόπιος, Parnopios), from πάρνοψ, "locust"
Founder and protector Agyieus ( ə-JUY-ih-yooss; Ἀγυιεύς, Aguīeus), from ἄγυια, "street", for his role in protecting roads and homes Alexicacus ( ə-LEK-sih-KAY-kəs; Ἀλεξίκακος, Alexikakos), literally "warding off evil" Apotropaeus ( ə-POT-rə-PEE-əs; Ἀποτρόπαιος, Apotropaios), from ἀποτρέπειν, "to avert" Archegetes ( ar-KEJ-ə-teez; Ἀρχηγέτης, Arkhēgetēs), literally "founder" Averruncus (Roman) ( AV-ə-RUNG-kəs; from Latin āverruncare), "to avert" Clarius ( KLARR-ee-əs; Κλάριος, Klārios), from Doric κλάρος, "allotted lot" Epicurius ( EP-ih-KURE-ee-əs; Ἐπικούριος, Epikourios), from ἐπικουρέειν, "to aid" Genetor ( JEN-ih-tər; Γενέτωρ, Genetōr), literally "ancestor" Nomius ( NOH-mee-əs; Νόμιος, Nomios), literally "pastoral" Nymphegetes ( nim-FEJ-ih-teez; Νυμφηγέτης, Numphēgetēs), from Νύμφη, "Nymph", and ἡγέτης, "leader", for his role as a protector of shepherds and pastoral life Patroos (Πατρῷος, Patrōios) from πατρῷος, "related to one's father", for his role as father of Ion and founder of the Ionians, as worshipped at the Temple of Apollo Patroos in Athens Sauroctonus (Σαυροκτόνος, Sauroctonos), "lizard-killer", possibly a reference to his killing of Python
Prophecy and truth Coelispex (Roman) ( SEL-isp-eks), from Latin coelum, "sky", and specere "to look at" Iatromantis ( eye-AT-rə-MAN-tis; Ἰατρομάντις, Iātromantis,) from ἰατρός, "physician", and μάντις, "prophet", referring to his role as a god both of healing and of prophecy Leschenorius ( LESS-kin-OR-ee-əs; Λεσχηνόριος, Leskhēnorios), from λεσχήνωρ, "converser" Loxias ( LOK-see-əs; Λοξίας, Loxias), from λέγειν, "to say", historically associated with λοξός, "ambiguous" Manticus ( MAN-tik-əs; Μαντικός, Mantikos), literally "prophetic" Proopsios (Προόψιος), meaning "foreseer" or "first seen"
Music and arts Musagetes ( mew-SAJ-ih-teez; Doric Μουσαγέτας, Mousāgetās), from Μούσα, "Muse", and ἡγέτης "leader" Musegetes ( mew-SEJ-ih-teez; Μουσηγέτης, Mousēgetēs), as the preceding
Archery Aphetor ( ə-FEE-tər; Ἀφήτωρ, Aphētōr), from ἀφίημι, "to let loose" Aphetorus ( ə-FET-ər-əs; Ἀφητόρος, Aphētoros), as the preceding Arcitenens (Roman) ( ar-TISS-in-ənz), literally "bow-carrying" Argyrotoxus ( AR-jər-ə-TOK-səs; Ἀργυρότοξος, Argyrotoxos), literally "with silver bow" Clytotoxus ( KLY-toh-TOK-səs; Κλυτότοξος, Klytótoxos), "he who is famous for his bow", the renowned archer. Hecaërgus ( HEK-ee-UR-gəs; Ἑκάεργος, Hekaergos), literally "far-shooting" Hecebolus ( hiss-EB-əl-əs; Ἑκηβόλος, Hekēbolos), "far-shooting" Ismenius ( iz-MEE-nee-əs; Ἰσμήνιος, Ismēnios), literally "of Ismenus", after Ismenus, the son of Amphion and Niobe, whom he struck with an arrow
Appearance Acersecomes (Ακερσεκόμης, Akersekómēs), "he who has unshorn hair", the eternal ephebe. Chrysocomes ( cry-SOH-koh-miss; Χρυσοκόμης, Khrusokómēs), literally "he who has golden hair".
Amazons Amazonius (Ancient Greek: Ἀμαζόνιος), was, according to Pausanias in the Description of Greece, the name of a sanctuary of Apollo near Pyrrhichus, with an image of the god said to have been dedicated by the Amazons.
Other Boedromius (Βοηδρόμιος), was a surname of Apollo in Athens, with varying explanations for its origin. Some claim that the reason the god was given this name was because he had helped the Athenians overcome the Amazons in their battle, which took place on the seventh of Boedromion, the day the Boedromia were later commemorated. Others claim that the term originated from the fact that, in the battle between Eumolpus and Erechtheus and Ion, Apollo had counselled the Athenians to charge the enemy with a war cry (Βοή) if they were going to win. Pythaeus (Πυθαεύς; from Pythaeus, the son of Apollo), in Hermione (Argolis) there was a temple of Apollo called Pythaeus, a name they learned from the Argives because according to the poet Telesilla, they were the first Greeks to whose country came Pythaeus, the son of Apollo. Horios (Ὅριος; "of the borders"), it might be because the Hermionians won a victory, either in war or arbitration, related to the borders of their land, and therefore honored Apollo Horios.
Celtic epithets and cult titles Apollo was worshipped throughout the Roman Empire. In the traditionally Celtic lands, he was most often seen as a healing and sun god. He was often equated with Celtic gods of similar character.
Apollo Atepomarus ("the great horseman" or "possessing a great horse"). Apollo was worshipped at Mauvières (Indre). Horses were, in the Celtic world, closely linked to the Sun. Apollo Belenus ("bright" or "brilliant"). This epithet was given to Apollo in parts of Gaul, Northern Italy and Noricum (part of modern Austria). Apollo Belenus was a healing and sun god. Apollo Cunomaglus ("hound lord"). A title given to Apollo at a shrine at Nettleton Shrub, Wiltshire. May have been a god of healing. Cunomaglus himself may originally have been an independent healing god. Apollo Grannus. Grannus was a healing spring god, later equated with Apollo. Apollo Maponus. A god known from inscriptions in Britain. This may be a local fusion of Apollo and Maponus. Apollo Moritasgus ("masses of sea water"). An epithet for Apollo at Alesia, where he was worshipped as the god of healing and, possibly, of physicians. Apollo Vindonnus ("clear light"). Apollo Vindonnus had a temple at Essarois, near Châtillon-sur-Seine in present-day Burgundy. He was a god of healing, especially of the eyes. Apollo Virotutis ("benefactor of mankind"). Apollo Virotutis was worshipped, among other places, at Fins d'Annecy (Haute-Savoie) and at Jublains (Maine-et-Loire).
Origins
Apollo was one of the principal deities of the Greek pantheon and was regarded by the Greeks as among the most characteristically Greek of the gods. Some scholars have likewise described him as the most Greek of the Olympian gods, and over the centuries his cult acquired a wide range of religious functions. In Greek mythology, he was the son of Zeus and Leto and the twin brother of Artemis. The major cult centres of Apollo, especially Delphi and Delos, date from the 8th century BCE. The Delian sanctuary was closely associated with Artemis, while at Delphi Apollo was venerated as the slayer of the monstrous serpent Python and as the god of the Delphic oracle. Through these sanctuaries, Apollo became one of the most important Panhellenic deities. In Archaic Greece, he was especially prominent as a prophetic and oracular god, with older associations with healing. In Classical Greece, he was increasingly associated with light and music, while in popular religion he retained an important apotropaic function, protecting worshippers from evil. The obscure prehistory of Apollo's worship has led scholars to propose several explanations for his development. Walter Burkert discerned three components in the prehistory of Apollo worship, which he termed "a Dorian-northwest Greek component, a Cretan-Minoan component, and a Syro-Hittite component". These interpretations do not describe Apollo as a foreign god adopted by the Greeks. Rather, they present him as a fully Greek and Greek religious deity whose historical form may have incorporated some earlier pre-Greek, Aegean, Asia Minor religious elements.
Dorian connections The Homeric Hymn to Apollo depicts Apollo as an intruder from the north. The connection with the northern-dwelling Dorians and their initiation festival apellai is reinforced by the month Apellaios in northwest Greek calendars. The family-festival was dedicated to Apollo (Doric: Ἀπέλλων). Apellaios is the month of these rites, and Apellon is the "megistos kouros" (the great Kouros). However it can explain only the Doric type of the name, which is connected with the Ancient Macedonian word "pella" (Pella), stone. Stones played an important part in the cult of the god, especially in the oracular shrine of Delphi (Omphalos).
Minoan connections
George Huxley considered the identification of Apollo with the Minoan deity Paiawon, worshipped in Crete, to have originated at Delphi. In the Homeric Hymn, Apollo appears as a dolphin carrying Cretan priests to Delphi, to which site they evidently transfer their religious practices. Apollo Delphinios or Delphidios was a sea-god worshipped especially in Crete and in the islands. Apollo's sister Artemis, who was the Greek goddess of hunting, is identified with the Minoan goddess Britomartis (Diktynna), and with Laphria the Pre-Greek "mistress of the animals" who was specially worshipped at Delphi. In her earliest depictions she was accompanied by the "Master of the animals", a bow-wielding god of hunting whose name has been lost; aspects of this figure may have been absorbed into the more popular Apollo. A family of priests at Delphi was named "Lab(r)yaden". The name may derive from Laphria.
Asia Minor connections
Possible Anatolian or broader Asia Minor elements in the formation of Apollo's cult have been discussed in scholarship. Apollo's mother Leto was associated with earlier deities of Asia Minor, and some scholars have connected aspects of Apollo's oracular, healing, purificatory, and apotropaic functions with Anatolian or Near Eastern traditions. Apollo was associated with the Trojan side during the Trojan War. He has also been compared with Appaliunas, a deity associated with Wilusa in Asia Minor, although the evidence is fragmentary and the identification remains debated. Other proposed parallels, including Lydian divine names and the celebration of Apollo's festivals on the seventh day of the month, have also been interpreted as possible eastern connections, but remain uncertain.
Healer and god-protector from evil
In classical times, his major function in popular religion was to keep away evil, and he was therefore called "apotropaios" (ἀποτρόπαιος, "averting evil") and "alexikakos" (ἀλεξίκακος "keeping off ill"; from v. ἀλέξω + n. κακόν). Apollo also had many epithets relating to his function as a healer. Some commonly used examples are "paion" (παιών literally "healer" or "helper") "epikourios" (ἐπικούριος, "succouring"), "oulios" (οὔλιος, "healer, baleful") and "loimios" (λοίμιος, "of the plague"). In later writers, the word, "paion", usually spelled "Paean", becomes a mere epithet of Apollo in his capacity as a god of healing. Apollo in his aspect of "healer" has a connection to the primitive god Paean (Παιών-Παιήων), who did not have a cult of his own. Paean serves as the healer of the gods in the Iliad, and seems to have originated in a pre-Greek religion. It is suggested, though unconfirmed, that he is connected to the Mycenaean figure pa-ja-wo-ne (Linear B: 𐀞𐀊𐀺𐀚). Paean was the personification of holy songs sung by "seer-doctors" (ἰατρομάντεις), which were supposed to cure disease. Homer uses the noun Paeon to designate both a god and that god's characteristic song of apotropaic thanksgiving and triumph. Such songs were originally addressed to Apollo and afterwards to other gods: to Dionysus, to Apollo Helios, to Apollo's son Asclepius the healer. About the 4th century BCE, the paean became merely a formula of adulation; its object was either to implore protection against disease and misfortune or to offer thanks after such protection had been rendered. It was in this way that Apollo had become recognized as the god of music. Apollo's role as the slayer of the Python led to his association with battle and victory; hence it became the Roman custom for a paean to be sung by an army on the march and before entering into battle, when a fleet left the harbour, and after a victory had been won. In the Iliad, Apollo is the healer under the gods, but he is also the bringer of disease and death with his arrows, similar to the function of the Vedic god of disease Rudra. He sends a plague (λοιμός) to the Achaeans. Knowing that Apollo can prevent a recurrence of the plague he sent, they purify themselves in a ritual and offer him a large sacrifice of cows, called a hecatomb.
Oracular cult
Unusually among the Olympic deities, Apollo had two cult sites that had widespread influence: Delos and Delphi. In cult practice, Delian Apollo and Pythian Apollo (the Apollo of Delphi) were so distinct that they might both have shrines in the same locality. Lycia was sacred to the god, for this Apollo was also called Lycian. Apollo's cult was already fully established when written sources commenced, about 650 BCE. Apollo became extremely important to the Greek world as an oracular deity in the archaic period, and the frequency of theophoric names such as Apollodorus or Apollonios, and cities named Apollonia testify to his popularity. Oracular sanctuaries to Apollo were established in other sites. In the 2nd and 3rd century CE, those at Didyma and Claros pronounced the so-called "theological oracles", in which Apollo confirms that all deities are aspects or servants of an all-encompassing, highest deity. "In the 3rd century, Apollo fell silent. Julian the Apostate (359–361) tried to revive the Delphic oracle, but failed."
Oracular shrines
Apollo had a famous oracle in Delphi, and other notable ones in Claros and Didyma. His oracular shrine in Abae in Phocis, where he bore the toponymic epithet Abaeus (Ἀπόλλων Ἀβαῖος, Apollon Abaios), was important enough to be consulted by Croesus. His oracular shrines include:
Abae in Phocis. Bassae in the Peloponnese. At Clarus, on the west coast of Asia Minor; as at Delphi a holy spring which gave off a pneuma, from which the priests drank. In Corinth, the Oracle of Corinth came from the town of Tenea, from prisoners supposedly taken in the Trojan War. At Khyrse, in Troad, the temple was built for Apollo Smintheus. In Delos, there was an oracle to the Delian Apollo, during summer. The Hieron (Sanctuary) of Apollo adjacent to the Sacred Lake, was the place where the god was said to have been born. In Delphi, the Pythia became filled with the pneuma of Apollo, said to come from a spring inside the Adyton. In Didyma, an oracle on the coast of Anatolia, south west of Lydian (Luwian) Sardis, in which priests from the lineage of the Branchidae received inspiration by drinking from a healing spring located in the temple. Was believed to have been founded by Branchus, son or lover of Apollo. In Hierapolis Bambyce, Syria (modern Manbij), according to the treatise De Dea Syria, the sanctuary of the Syrian Goddess contained a robed and bearded image of Apollo. Divination was based on spontaneous movements of this image. At Patara, in Lycia, there was a seasonal winter oracle of Apollo, said to have been the place where the god went from Delos. As at Delphi the oracle at Patara was a woman. In Segesta in Sicily. Oracles were also given by sons of Apollo.
In Oropus, north of Athens, the oracle Amphiaraus, was said to be the son of Apollo; Oropus also had a sacred spring. in Labadea, 20 miles (32 km) east of Delphi, Trophonius, another son of Apollo, killed his brother and fled to the cave where he was also afterwards consulted as an oracle.
Temples of Apollo
Many temples were dedicated to Apollo in Greece and its colonies. They show the spread of the cult of Apollo and the evolution of Greek architecture, which was mostly based on the rightness of form and on mathematical relations. Some of the earliest temples, especially in Crete, do not belong to any Greek order. It seems that the first peripteral temples were rectangular wooden structures. The different wooden elements were considered divine, and their forms were preserved in the marble or stone elements of the temples of Doric order. The Greeks used standard types because they believed that the world of objects was a series of typical forms which could be represented in several instances. The temples should be canonic, and the architects were trying to achieve this esthetic perfection. From the earliest times there were certain rules strictly observed in rectangular peripteral and prostyle buildings. The first buildings were built narrowly in order to hold the roof, and when the dimensions changed some mathematical relations became necessary in order to keep the original forms. This probably influenced the theory of numbers of Pythagoras, who believed that behind the appearance of things there was the permanent principle of mathematics. The Doric order dominated during the 6th and the 5th century BC but there was a mathematical problem regarding the position of the triglyphs, which could not be solved without changing the original forms. The order was almost abandoned for the Ionic order, but the Ionic capital also posed an insoluble problem at the corner of a temple. Both orders were abandoned for the Corinthian order gradually during the Hellenistic age and under Rome.
Greek temples
Thebes, Greece: The oldest temple probably dedicated to Apollo Ismenius was built in the 9th century BC. It seems that it was a curvilinear building. The Doric temple was built in the early 7th century BC, but only some small parts have been found. A festival called Daphnephoria was celebrated every ninth year in honour of Apollo Ismenius (or Galaxius). The people held laurel branches (daphnai), and at the head of the procession walked a youth (chosen priest of Apollo), who was called "daphnephoros". Eretria: According to the Homeric hymn to Apollo, the god arrived on the plain, seeking for a location to establish its oracle. The first temple of Apollo Daphnephoros, "Apollo, laurel-bearer", or "carrying off Daphne", is dated to 800 BC. The temple was curvilinear hecatombedon (a hundred feet). In a smaller building were kept the bases of the laurel branches which were used for the first building. Another temple probably peripteral was built in the 7th century BC, with an inner row of wooden columns over its Geometric predecessor. It was rebuilt peripteral around 510 BC, with the stylobate measuring 21.00 x 43.00 m. The number of pteron column was 6 x 14. Dreros (Crete). The temple of Apollo Delphinios dates from the 7th century BC, or probably from the middle of the 8th century BC. According to the legend, Apollo appeared as a dolphin, and carried Cretan priests to the port of Delphi. The dimensions of the plan are 10.70 x 24.00 m and the building was not peripteral. It contains column-bases of the Minoan type, which may be considered as the predecessors of the Doric columns. Gortyn (Crete). A temple of Pythian Apollo, was built in the 7th century BC. The plan measured 19.00 x 16.70 m and it was not peripteral. The walls were solid and made from limestone. There was a single door on the east side. Thermon (West Greece): The Doric temple of Apollo Thermios, was built in the middle of the 7th century BC. It was built on an older curvilinear building dating perhaps from the 10th century, on which a peristyle was added. The temple was narrow, and the number of pteron columns (probably wooden) was 5 x 15. There was a single row of inner columns. It measures 12.13 x 38.23 m at the stylobate, which was made from stones. Corinth: A Doric temple was built in the 6th century BC. The temple's stylobate measures 21.36 x 53.30 m, and the number of pteron columns was 6 x 15. There was a double row of inner columns. The style is similar to the Temple of Alcmeonidae at Delphi. The Corinthians were considered to be the inventors of the Doric order. Napes (Lesbos): An Aeolic temple probably of Apollo Napaios was built in the 7th century BC. Some special capitals with floral ornament have been found, which are called Aeolic, and they seem to have been borrowed from the East. Cyrene, Libya: The oldest Doric temple of Apollo was built in c. 600 BC. The number of pteron columns was 6 x 11, and it measures 16.75 x 30.05 m at the stylobate. There was a double row of sixteen inner columns on stylobates. The capitals were made from stone.
Naukratis: An Ionic temple was built in the early 6th century BC. Only some fragments have been found and the earlier ones, made from limestone, are identified among the oldest of the Ionic order.
Syracuse, Sicily: A Doric temple was built at the beginning of the 6th century BC. The temple's stylobate measures 21.47 x 55.36 m and the number of pteron columns was 6 x 17. It was the first temple in Greek west built completely out of stone. A second row of columns were added, obtaining the effect of an inner porch. Selinus (Sicily):The Doric Temple C dates from 550 BC, and it was probably dedicated to Apollo. The temple's stylobate measures 10.48 x 41.63 m and the number of pteron columns was 6 x 17. There was a portico with a second row of columns, which is also attested for the temple at Syracuse. Delphi: The first temple dedicated to Apollo, was built in the 7th century BC. According to the legend, it was wooden made of laurel branches. The "Temple of Alcmeonidae" was built in c. 513 BC and it is the oldest Doric temple with significant marble elements. The temple's stylobate measures 21.65 x 58.00 m, and the number of pteron columns as 6 x 15. A fest similar to Apollo's fest at Thebes, Greece was celebrated every nine years. A boy was sent to the temple, who walked on the sacred road and returned carrying a laurel branch (dopnephoros). The maidens participated with joyful songs. Chios: An Ionic temple of Apollo Phanaios was built at the end of the 6th century BC. Only some small parts have been found and the capitals had floral ornament. Abae (Phocis). The temple was destroyed by the Persians in the invasion of Xerxes in 480 BC, and later by the Boeotians. It was rebuilt by Hadrian. The oracle was in use from early Mycenaean times to the Roman period, and shows the continuity of Mycenaean and Classical Greek religion. Bassae (Peloponnesus): A temple dedicated to Apollo Epikourios ("Apollo the helper"), was built in 430 BC, designed by Iktinos. It combined Doric and Ionic elements, and the earliest use of a column with a Corinthian capital in the middle. The temple is of a relatively modest size, with the stylobate measuring 14.5 x 38.3 metres containing a Doric peristyle of 6 x 15 columns. The roof left a central space open to admit light and air. Delos: A temple probably dedicated to Apollo and not peripteral, was built in the late 7th century BC, with a plan measuring 10.00 x 15.60 m. The Doric Great temple of Apollo, was built in c. 475 BC. The temple's stylobate measures 13.72 x 29.78 m, and the number of pteron columns as 6 x 13. Marble was extensively used. Ambracia: A Doric peripteral temple dedicated to Apollo Pythios Sotir was built in 500 BC, at the centre of the Greek city Arta. Only some parts have been found, and it seems that the temple was built on earlier sanctuaries dedicated to Apollo. The temple measures 20.75 x 44.00 m at the stylobate. The foundation which supported the statue of the god, still exists.
Didyma (near Miletus): The gigantic Ionic temple of Apollo Didymaios started around 540 BC. The construction ceased and then it was restarted in 330 BC. The temple is dipteral, with an outer row of 10 x 21 columns, and it measures 28.90 x 80.75 m at the stylobate. Clarus (near ancient Colophon): According to the legend, the famous seer Calchas, on his return from Troy, came to Clarus. He challenged the seer Mopsus, and died when he lost. The Doric temple of Apollo Clarius was probably built in the 3rd century BC., and it was peripteral with 6 x 11 columns. It was reconstructed at the end of the Hellenistic period, and later from the emperor Hadrian but Pausanias claims that it was still incomplete in the 2nd century BC.
Hamaxitus (Troad): In the Iliad, Chryses the priest of Apollo, addresses the god with the epithet Smintheus (Lord of Mice), related to the god's ancient role as bringer of the disease (plague). Recent excavations indicate that the Hellenistic temple of Apollo Smintheus was constructed in 150–125 BC, but the symbol of the mouse god was used on coinage probably from the 4th century . The temple measures 40.00 x 23.00 m at the stylobate, and the number of pteron columns was 8 x 14. Pythion (Ancient Greek: Πύθιον), this was the name of a shrine of Apollo at Athens near the Ilisos river. It was created by Peisistratos, and tripods were placed there by those who had won in the cyclic chorus at the Thargelia. Setae (Lydia): The temple of Apollo Aksyros located in the city. Apollonia Pontica: There were two temples of Apollo Healer in the city. One from the Late Archaic period and the other from the Early Classical period. Ikaros island in the Persian Gulf (modern Failaka Island): There was a temple of Apollo on the island. Argos in Cyprus: there was a temple of Apollo Erithios (Ἐριθίου Ἀπόλλωνος ἱερῷ). The temple and oracle of Apollo at Eutresis. An altar of Apollo Acritas was at Lacedaemon. In addition, above a sanctuary surnamed Gasepton of Earth in Lacedaemon was set up the Maleatian Apollo.
Etruscan and Roman temples Veii (Etruria): The temple of Apollo was built in the late 6th century BC, indicating the spread of Apollo's culture (Aplu) in Etruria. There was a prostyle porch, which is called Tuscan, and a triple cella 18.50 m wide. Falerii Veteres (Etruria): A temple of Apollo was built probably in the 4th–3rd century BC. Parts of a terracotta capital, and a terracotta base have been found. It seems that the Etruscan columns were derived from the archaic Doric. A cult of Apollo Soranus is attested by one inscription found near Falerii.
Pompeii (Italy): The cult of Apollo was widespread in the region of Campania since the 6th century BC. The temple was built in 120 BC, but its beginnings lie in the 6th century BC. It was reconstructed after an earthquake in AD 63. It demonstrates a mixing of styles which formed the basis of Roman architecture. The columns in front of the cella formed a Tuscan prostyle porch, and the cella is situated unusually far back. The peripteral colonnade of 48 Ionic columns was placed in such a way that the emphasis was given to the front side.
Rome: The temple of Apollo Sosianus and the temple of Apollo Medicus. The first temple building dates to 431 BC, and was dedicated to Apollo Medicus (the doctor), after a plague of 433 BC. It was rebuilt by Gaius Sosius, probably in 34 BC. Only three columns with Corinthian capitals exist today. It seems that the cult of Apollo had existed in this area since at least to the mid-5th century BC. Rome: The temple of Apollo Palatinus was located on the Palatine hill within the sacred boundary of the city. It was dedicated by Augustus in 28 BC. The façade of the original temple was Ionic and it was constructed from solid blocks of marble. Many famous statues by Greek masters were on display in and around the temple, including a marble statue of the god at the entrance and a statue of Apollo in the cella. Melite (modern Mdina, Malta): A Temple of Apollo was built in the city in the 2nd century AD. Its remains were discovered in the 18th century, and many of its architectural fragments were dispersed among private collections or reworked into new sculptures. Parts of the temple's podium were rediscovered in 2002.
Mythology
Birth
In Greek mythology, Apollo was the son of Zeus, the king of the Olympian gods, and Leto, a Titan goddess and daughter of the Titans Coeus and Phoebe. According to myth, Leto was pursued by Hera, Zeus's wife, while searching for a place to give birth. She eventually found refuge on the Greek island of Delos, where she gave birth to Apollo and his twin sister, Artemis.
Homeric Hymn to Apollo Pregnant with the offspring of Zeus, Leto wandered through many lands wanting to give birth to Apollo, but she was rejected everywhere out of fear. Upon reaching Delos, Leto requested the island to shelter her, and that in return her son would bring fame and prosperity to the island. Delos then revealed to Leto that Apollo was rumoured to be the god who will "greatly lord it among gods and men all over the fruitful earth". For this reason, people were fearful, and Delos worried that Apollo would cast her aside once he was born. Hearing this, Leto swore on the river Styx that if she was allowed to give birth on the island, her son would honor Delos the most among all the other lands. Assured by this, Delos agreed to assist Leto. All goddesses except Hera also came to aid Leto. However, Leto was unable to give birth, because Hera had tricked Eileithyia, the goddess of childbirth, to stay on Olympus. The goddesses then convinced Iris to go bring Eileithyia by offering her a necklace of amber 9 yards (8.2 m) long. Iris did accordingly and persuaded Eileithyia to step onto the island. Thus, clutching a palm tree, Leto finally gave birth after labouring for nine days and nine nights, with Apollo "leaping forth" from his mother's womb. The goddesses washed the newborn, covered him in a white garment and fastened golden bands around him. Themis, the goddess of divine law, fed him nectar and ambrosia, as Leto was unable to do so. Upon tasting the divine food, the child broke free of the bands fastened onto him and declared that he would be the master of lyre and archery, and interpret the will of Zeus to humankind. He then started to walk, which caused the island to be filled with gold.
Callimachus's Hymn to Delos The island Delos used to be Asteria, a goddess who jumped into the waters to escape the advances of Zeus and became a free-floating island of the same name. When Leto got pregnant, Hera was told that Leto's son would become more dear to Zeus than Ares. Enraged by this, Hera watched over the heavens and sent out Ares and Iris to prevent Leto from giving birth on the earth. Ares, stationed over the mainland, and Iris, over the islands, threatened all the lands and prevented them from helping Leto. When Leto arrived at Thebes, fetal Apollo prophesied from his mother's womb that in the future he would punish a slanderous woman in Thebes (Niobe), so he did not want to be born there. Leto then went to Thessaly and sought the help of the river nymphs who were the daughters of the river Peneus. Despite being initially fearful and reluctant, Peneus later decided to let Leto give birth in his waters. He did not change his mind, even when Ares produced a terrifying sound and threatened to hurl mountain peaks into the river. But Leto herself declined his help and departed, as she did not want him to suffer for her sake. After being turned away from various lands, Apollo spoke again from the womb, asking his mother to take look at the floating island in front of her and expressing his wish to be born there. When Leto approached Asteria, all the other islands fled. But Asteria welcomed Leto without any fear of Hera. Walking on the island, she sat down against a palm tree and asked Apollo to be born. During the childbirth, swans circled the island seven times, a sign that later on Apollo would play the seven-stringed lyre. When Apollo finally "leapt forth" from his mother's womb, the nymphs of the island sang a hymn to Eileithyia that was h