A Doctor of Medicine (abbreviated M.D. or MD, from the Latin Medicinae Doctor or Dr med., from the inverse construction) is a medical degree, the meaning of which varies between different jurisdictions. In the United States, and some other countries, the MD denotes a professional degree of physician. This generally arose because many in 18th-century medical professions trained in Scotland, which used the MD degree nomenclature. In England, however, Bachelor of Medicine, Bachelor of Surgery (MBBS) was used: in the 19th century, it became the standard in Scotland too. Thus, in the United Kingdom, Ireland and other countries, the MD is a research doctorate, honorary doctorate or applied clinical degree restricted to those who already hold a professional degree (Bachelor's/Master's/Doctoral) in medicine. In those countries, the equivalent professional degree to the North American, and some others' usage of MD is still typically titled Bachelor of Medicine, Bachelor of Surgery.
History
The first medical degrees were awarded by the Schola Medica Salernitana around the year 1000, including to women such as Trota of Salerno. The degrees received legal sanction in 1137 by Roger II of Sicily and in 1231 by Emperor Federico II, in the Constitution of Melfi. In the titles XLIV-LXXXIX of the third book of the Constitutions of 1231, it was established that the activity of a physician (medicus) could only be carried out by physicians holding a medical degree, the Licentia Medendi (license to medicine), by the Schola Medica Salernitana (the only school in the kingdom authorized to award degrees in medicine). This degree was awarded after a curriculum composed of three years of study of logic, five years of medical studies, an examination of a commission composed of the professors of the university, a one-year apprenticeship with an expert doctor, and a final examination before the commissioners of the Royal Curia and the Provincial Curias. In 1703, the University of Glasgow's first medical graduate, Samuel Benion, was issued with the academic degree of Doctor of Medicine. University medical education in England culminated with the MB qualification, and in Scotland the MD, until in the mid-19th century the public bodies who regulated medical practice at the time required practitioners in Scotland as well as England to hold the dual Bachelor of Medicine and Bachelor of Surgery degrees (MB BS/MBChB/MB BChir/BM BCh etc.). North American medical schools switched to the tradition of the ancient universities of Scotland and began granting the MD title rather than the MB beginning in the late 18th century. The Columbia University College of Physicians and Surgeons in New York (which at the time was referred to as King's College of Medicine) was the first American university to grant the MD degree instead of the MB. Early medical schools in North America that granted the Doctor of Medicine degrees were Columbia, Penn, Harvard, Maryland, and McGill. These first few North American medical schools that were established were (for the most part) founded by physicians and surgeons who had been trained in England and Scotland. In most countries having a Doctor of Medicine degree does not mean that the individual will be allowed to practice medicine. Typically a physician must go through a year of general medical education in a hospital as an intern and then a residency for at least three years in a specific field of medicine and then take some form of licensing examination in their jurisdiction. Medical occupational licensing was found to increase the time required to allow practicing medicine and increase medical education costs. A feminine form, "Doctress of Medicine" or Medicinae Doctrix, was also used by the New England Female Medical College in Boston in the 1860s.
By country
First professional degrees
Afghanistan
In Afghanistan, medical education begins after high school. No pre-medicine courses or bachelor's degree are required. Eligibility is determined through the rank applicants obtain in the public university entrance exam held every year throughout the country. Entry to medical school is competitive, and only students with the highest ranks are accepted into medical programs. The primary medical degree is completed in 7 years. According to the new medical curriculum (from 2016), during the 12th semester, medical students must complete research on a medical topic and provide a thesis as part of their training. Students also undergo a one-year compulsory internship, to be completed in a teaching hospital. Medical graduates are awarded a certificate in general medicine, regarded as "MD" and validated by the "Ministry of Higher Education of Afghanistan". All physicians are to obtain licensing and a medical council registration number from the "Ministry of Public Health" before they officially begin to practice. They may subsequently specialize in a specific medical field at medical schools offering the necessary qualifications. After graduation, students may complete residency. Before the civil wars in Afghanistan, medical education used to be taught by foreign professors or Afghan professors who studied medical education abroad. The Kabul medical institute certified the students as "Master of Medicine". After the civil wars, medical education changed extensively, and the MD certification has been reduced to "Medicine Bachelor".
Argentina In Argentina, the First Degree of Physician or Physician Diplomate (Spanish: Título de Médico) is equivalent to the North American MD Degree with six years of intensive studies followed by usually three or four years of residency as a major specialty in a particular empiric field, consisting of internships, social services and sporadic research. Only by holding a Medical Title can the postgraduate student apply for the Doctor degree through a doctorate in medicine program approved by the National Commission for University Evaluation and Accreditation.
Armenia In Armenia, medical studies take six years. After completing high school, students can apply to one of the country's medical universities. The application process includes an admission examination testing the applicant in biology, chemistry, and physics. The six-year medical education course is a combined bachelor's and master's degree program. The first three years consist of lecture courses while the final three years consist of education in clinical settings alongside attending physicians. Medical students may also simultaneously study for a Master of Public Health if they wish, which takes one and a half years of study. After the six-year period of study, students must pass the state medical examination to graduate. They must then undergo a period of residency training in their chosen field of practice, the duration of which lasts from one to four years.
Australia
Historically, Australian medical schools have followed the British tradition by conferring the degrees of Bachelor of Medicine and Bachelor of Surgery (MBBS) to its graduates whilst reserving the title of Doctor of Medicine (MD) for their research training degree, analogous to the PhD, or for their higher or honorary doctorates. Although the majority of Australian MBBS degrees have been graduate programs since the 1990s, under the previous Australian Qualifications Framework (AQF) they remained categorized as Level 7 Bachelor's degrees together with other undergraduate programs. The latest version of the AQF includes the new category of Level 9 Master's (Extended) degrees which permits the use of the term 'Doctor' in the styling of the degree title of relevant professional programs. As a result, various Australian medical schools have replaced their MBBS degrees with the MD to resolve the previous anomalous nomenclature. With the introduction of the Master's level MD, universities have also renamed their previous medical research doctorates. The University of Melbourne was the first to introduce the MD in 2011 as a basic medical degree, and has renamed its research degree to Doctor of Medical Science (DMedSc). Australian National University offers a Doctor of Medicine and Surgery (MChD, abbreviated from Medicinae ac Chirurgiae Doctoranda) which is also a 4-year extended master's degree that qualifies graduates to be medical practitioners like with a MD or MBBS.
Austria In Austria, medical studies (medicine or dentistry) take six years full-time. In medicine, the first two years comprise basic fields of medicine such as anatomy, biology, chemistry, physics, physiology, etc., the next three years consist of all medical fields in the narrower sense with frequent bedside training and medical traineeships while the sixth and last year is dedicated solely to working in a clinic. After this, a specific six-year training (e.g. in internal medicine, paediatrics, ENT, pathology) or four year (GP) can be started; without this training, working with patients is forbidden. There is no central placement test for said specialist training, only a board-registered spot as a resident/registrar is needed. As with all other studies in Austria, there is no tuition but compulsory students' union fee (approx €38 per year). A specific entrance exam (MedAT, Medizin-Aufnahmetest, medicine acceptance test) has to be taken but is open only once a year in summer; a fee of €110 has to be paid. In 2019, 16443 persons registered for the MedAT and 12960 took the test. 1.680 university places for both medicine and dentistry are offered each year with 95% of all places for EU citizens and 75% for applicants with an Austrian higher education entrance qualification/GCE A-levels. Many Germans who are denied studying in their home country try to study medicine in Austria; hence this quota was introduced and approved by the EU as most of them leave upon graduation. The title of "Doktor" is granted to physicians (Dr. med. univ., Doctor medicinae universae, Dr. der gesamten Heilkunde = Dr. "of the entire art of healing") and dentists (Dr. med. dent., Doctor medicinae dentinae), who do not possess doctorates, but Master's level 6 year-training, similar to the American MD or DDS. although they have to write a diploma thesis of approx. 50–100 pages. In former days the same title was connected to an official doctoral degree in connection with an older study regulation. The law has been changed in 2002. Some of which are published in peer-reviewed journals while others are not. A post-graduate research doctorate (Dr. scient. med., Dr. scientiae medicinae, or PhD) can be obtained after a three years post-graduate study at a medical university. All doctors may be addressed as "Doktor ______", and the title is usually contracted to "Dr. ______". In many everyday-day settings in Austria, also outside the clinic, it is common to address medical doctors solely as "Herr/Frau Doktor" (Mr./Ms./Mrs. doctor) without any specific family name (especially in rural areas and small villages, and by older people), and they are often viewed as the "real doctors". Among themselves, MDs do not use "doctor" as an appellation but just "Herr Kollege/Frau Kollegin" (Mr./Ms/Mrs. = "dear" colleague). Consistent use of "Doktor" when addressing another medical doctor is seen as confrontative and mockery.
Azerbaijan In Azerbaijan, medical education is provided at the "baza ali" (basic higher) level in specialties such as Tibb (Medicine). Medical programs typically last six years, combining theoretical instruction and clinical training. After graduation, doctors may continue their training through rezidentura (residency), which lasts between 2–5 years depending on the specialty. Following residency, physicians receive the professional qualification of "həkim‑mütəxəssis". Some medical specialties also require certification ("sertifikasiya") in order to practice. Azerbaijani medical degrees are recognized internationally, depending on the country and licensing body.
Belgium
In Belgium, the medical degree awarded after six years of study is called "Docteur en Médecine" in the French-speaking part of the country and "Master in de geneeskunde" in Flanders. Physicians would then have to register with the Ordre des Médecins to practice medicine in the country. Physicians would then either have to do a three-year internship to become a general practitioner or up to 6 years to specialize.
Bosnia and Herzegovina In Bosnia and Herzegovina, the title of "doktor medicine" (abbreviated "dr. med.") is awarded upon completion of six years of study at a Faculty of Medicine ("medicinski fakultet") immediately after high school.
Bulgaria At the end of the six-year medical programs from Bulgarian medical schools, medical students are awarded the academic degree Master/Magister in Medicine and the professional title Physician – Doctor of Medicine (MD / MA ).
Cambodia
After six years of general medical education (a foundation year plus five years), all students will graduate with a Bachelor of Medical Sciences (BMedSc, Khmer: បរិញ្ញាប័ត្រ វិទ្យាសាស្រ្តវេជ្ជសាស្ត្រ), equivalent to Bachelor of Science, Bachelor of Surgery (MBBS). This degree does not allow graduates to work independently as a physician, but it is possible for those who wish to continue to master's degrees in other fields relating to medical sciences such as public health, epidemiology, biomedical science, and nutrition. Medical graduates, who wish to be fully qualified as physicians or specialists must follow the process as below:
General Practitioner's (GP) course of nine years (BMedSc plus a two-year internship). Clinical rotation during the internship is modulated within four main disciplines (general medicine, surgery, gynecology, and pediatrics). The medical certification awarded is Diploma of Doctor of Medicine (MD, Khmer: បណ្ឌិតវេជ្ជសាស្ត្រ ឬ វេជ្ជបណ្ឌិត) – equivalent to a master's degree [?]. After graduating with BMedSc; any students who wish to enter a 'Residency Training Program', are required to sit for an Residency Entrance Exam. The duration of the programs takes four years after either BMedSc or MD (BMedSc or MD plus four years of specialization). Once the graduates have successfully defended their practical thesis, they are awarded the Diploma of Specialized Doctor (MD with specialization, Khmer: សញ្ញាប័ត្រ៖ វេជ្ជបណ្ឌិតឯកទេស, lit. 'Professional Doctorate'). All medical graduates must complete a 'Thesis Defense' and pass the National Exit Exam (Khmer: ប្រឡងចេញថ្នាក់ជាតិក្នុងវិស័យសុខាភិបាល) to become either GPs or medical or surgical specialists. Last but importantly, those GPs or MDs have to register their name in the Cambodian Medical Committee (CMC) to receive the license to see patients, and pay for the registration every year.
Canada
In Canada, the MD is the degree required to practise medicine. Similar to the United States, students in Canada from English-speaking provinces must complete four years of a bachelor's degree, then write the MCAT at which point they move into the typical four year medical school curriculum. As a practical matter, nearly all successful applicants have completed one or more degrees before admission to a Canadian medical school, although despite this the Canadian MD, along with other first professional degrees, is considered to be a bachelor's degree-level qualification. The notable exception is the French-speaking province of Quebec, where their special CEGEP post-secondary institutions do not grant a bachelor's degree, but instead College Education Diplomas (DECs). Students typically enroll in a two-year Science Program such as Health Science, Pure & Applied, or Environmental (latter exclusive to CEGEP Dawson College) which lead into the Med-P qualifying year at Mcgill University or l'Université de Montréal, after which students complete the four-year curriculum similar to other provinces. Other Quebec universities such as the Université Laval and Université de Sherbrooke admit students possessing a DEC directly into the four-year program. This in total means the path to graduation from medical school is one to two years shorter for Quebec students (six or seven as opposed to eight). Another exception is the availability of a 3-year medical school curriculum, offered at two medical schools in Canada, the McMaster University Medical School and the University of Calgary. McGill University Faculty of Medicine is the only medical school in Canada that continues to award the MD, CM degrees (abbreviated MDCM). MDCM is from the Latin Medicinae Doctorem et Chirurgiae Magistrum meaning "Doctor of Medicine and Master of Surgery". Upon graduation, students enter into a residency phase of training. Prior to obtaining an independent practicing license from a provincial regulatory body, students must complete the Medical Council of Canada Qualifying Examination to obtain the Licentiate of the Medical Council of Canada (LMCC) qualification. and complete the specialty certifying exam from their respective college, the Royal College of Physicians and Surgeons of Canada for specialists and the College of Family Physicians of Canada for family physicians.
Chile In Chile, medical education begins after graduating high-school, in public or private universities, which select candidates based on a national entrance exams (former University Selection Test, now in transition to a new selection test). Public universities and private universities cost around US$8,000–12,000 a year. In almost every university the career lasts for 7 years, the first two being basic sciences, then three years of preclinical studies, and ending with two years of supervised clinical practice (internship, or "internado") both at hospitals and ambulatory centers. Upon graduation, students obtain the professional title "Médico Cirujano", equivalent to Doctor of Medicine (MD). After graduation, in order to practice medicine in public establishments of primary or hospital care, every new physician must take the EUNACOM (Single National Exam for Medical Knowledge). The title enables the graduate to practice as a General Practitioner, and many of them may follow specialization studies in clinical or non-clinical fields. There is a national accreditation program, mandatory for every school of medicine in the country. In Chile, physicians receive the courtesy denomination of "Doctor" followed by their family name, even though in an academic environment the medical title is not accepted as an equivalent to PhDs; regardless, at community and family level, and in day-to-day activities, they are often viewed as "real doctors".
China In China, research universities offer the eight-year Doctor of Medicine program. In the meantime, the majority of primary medical training comes in the form of a 5-year Bachelor of Medicine degree, which includes 4 years of basic science, biomedical science and clinical science training (with short-term clerkship) and 1 years of full-time clerkship training. Graduates from such programs are eligible to sit for Medical Doctor License Examination in China providing they are working as resident physicians or surgeons in a hospital. Many of the young doctors do seek further training by entering a three-year Master of Medicine (clinical track) program or five-year Doctor of Medicine (clinical track). Some take a job/promotion after the three-year program and work for a number of years and then take on another three years of training to get the ultimate Doctor of Medicine degree.
Croatia In Croatia, the title of "doktor medicine" (abbreviated "dr. med.") is awarded to candidates who successfully completed six years of study in medicine and defended their graduate thesis (student's original research in clinical / preclinical medicine or life sciences). The title is legally awarded only upon the successful thesis exam (thesis defence) in the presence of a board of senior researchers and candidate's research mentor. It is not equivalent to "doktor znanosti" degree ("doctor scientiae", abbreviated "dr.sc."), which is equivalent to PhD.
Cuba In Cuba, the title of "Doctor en Medicina" (Doctor of Medicine) is awarded upon completion of six years of study at a University of Medical Sciences after high school. Medicine was one of the four foundational careers of the first Cuban university named Real y Pontificia Universidad de San Jeronimo de La Habana (current University of Havana) founded in 1728.
Czech Republic In the Czech Republic, students are awarded the title MUDr. (medicinae universae doctor in Latin) upon successfully passing set of State Examinations after six years of medical school composed of theoretical and clinical training.
Dominican Republic In the Dominican Republic, it is known as "Doctor en Medicina" (Doctor in Medicine). In 1511 the Spanish Catholic church founded the first university of the Americas in Santo Domingo present capital of modern-day Dominican Republic and name it Universidad Santo Tomas de Aquino (today Universidad Autonoma de Santo Domingo). In 1630 this university graduated the first medical doctors of the Americas and amongst the graduates some Native Americans included.
Ecuador In Ecuador, medical school begins after graduating high school. There are two options: applying to public or private universities. Both private and public university select their candidates based on entrance exams. Public universities are free, while private universities cost around US$6,000–12,000 a year. In most universities, the course of study lasts for six years. After graduating, students obtain a degree of "médico" or "médico cirujano", depending on which is offered by each university. Both degrees are equivalent to the doctor of medicine (MD).
Egypt In Egypt, the primary medical degree is Bachelor of Medicine and Surgery (MBBCh.), which is obtained after completion of five years of medical education and two years National Compulsory Internship Program. The Degree Doctor of Medicine (MD) is the highest academic medical degree in Egypt. It is a research degree obtained after the primary medical qualification (MBBCh.) and a master's degree in a certain specialty in medicine. It usually requires coursework, clinical training and a thesis. The degree Doctor of Medicine allows for promotion to the level of "Consultant Physician" in a specific medical specialty.
Estonia In Estonia, there is only one university, The University of Tartu, with programs in medicine and dentistry. The program in medicine lasts for six years, including a one-year clinical internship, and students are awarded Doctor of Medicine (MD) upon graduation. The degree is academically equivalent to a master's degree. After that, one can work either as a general practitioner or enter a residency program to become a specialized doctor. Residency usually lasts, depending on the field, three to five years, with surgical residencies usually being the longest (5 years).
France
After graduating from high school with a Baccalaureat, any student can register at a university of medicine (there are about 30 of them throughout the country). Until 2018, at the end of the first year, an internal ranking examination took place at each of these universities in order to implement the numerus clausus. This ranking examination and the numerus clausus has since been abolished. First year consists primarily of theoretical classes such as biophysics and biochemistry, anatomy, ethics or histology. Passing first year is generally considered very challenging, requiring hard and continuous work. Each student can only try twice. For example, prior to its 2019 merger with Paris Diderot University, the Université René Descartes welcomed about 2,000 students in the first year and only 300 after numerus clausus. The second and third year are usually quite theoretical although the teachings are often accompanied by placements in the field (e.g., internships as nurses or in the emergency room, depending on the university). During their fourth, fifth and sixth years, medical students get a special status called "externe" (In some universities, such as Pierre et Marie Curie, the externe status is given beginning in the third year). They work as interns every morning at the hospital plus a few night shifts a month and study in the afternoon. Each internship lasts between three and four months and takes place in a different department. Med students get five weeks off a year. At the end of the sixth year, they need to pass a national ranking exam, which will determine their specialty. The first student gets to choose first, then the second, etcetera. Usually, students work hard during the fifth and sixth years in order to train properly for the national ranking exam. During these years, actual practice at the hospital and in conjunction with some theoretical courses are meant to balance the training. Such externs' average wage stands between 100 and 300 euros a month. After taking those ranking exams, students can start as residents in the specialty they have been able to pick. That is the point from which they also start getting paid. Towards the end of the medical program, French medical students are provided with more responsibilities and are required to defend a thesis; however, unlike a PhD thesis, no original research is actually necessary to write an MD thesis. At the conclusion of the thesis defense, French medical students receive a State Diploma of Doctor of Medicine (MD, French: diplôme d'Etat de docteur en médecine). Every new doctor must then proceed to a Diploma of Specialised Studies (DES, French: diplôme d'Etudes spécialisées) to mark their specialty. Some students may also receive a Diploma of Complementary Specialized Studies (DESC, French: diplôme d'Etudes spécialisées complémentaires).
Georgia In Georgia, medical universities in Georgia offer a six-year curriculum leading to the award of Doctor of Medicine (MD) "Physician" "Medical Doctor (MD), a European medical degree which is valid throughout the world. Some of the reputed medical universities include Batumi State University, Tbilisi State Medical University, Akaki Tsereteli State University, Ilia State University and University of Georgia
Germany
After at least six years of medical school, the students graduate with a final federal medical exam (Dritter Abschnitt der ärztlichen Prüfung). Graduates receive their license to practice medicine and the professional title of physician (Arzt). About 60% of them additionally obtain the academic degree Doctor of Medicine (Dr. med.). The European Research Council ruled in 2010 that a medical doctorate alone is not considered equivalent to a PhD research degree for the purpose of selection for ERC Starting Grants, requiring additional evidence (e.g., proof of an appointment that requires doctoral equivalency, such as a post-doctoral fellowship) for the overall training to be considered equivalent to a PhD.
Guyana In Guyana, Doctor of Medicine (MD) degree is awarded after the completion of four years or five years of study. Texila American University, Green Heart University, American International School of Medicine, Alexander American University, Lincoln American University provides medicine programs.These institutions are recognized by the National Accreditation Council (NAC) of Guyana and are listed in international directories like WDOMS. Some schools, such as Texila, have additional accreditations like CAAM-HP and ACCM, and their graduates are eligible to sit for international licensing exams including USMLE andFMGE.
Hungary In Hungary, after six years of medical school, which includes a sixth-year internship, students are awarded the 'okleveles orvosdoktor' (Doctor of Medicine) degree.
Indonesia In Indonesia, the title of "dokter" (dr.) is awarded after 3.5–4 years of pre-clinical study (bachelor's of medicine) and 1.5–2 years of clinical study in a university hospital (medical doctor profession program). After a medical student finishes at least five years of the programs, they need to take the "Students' Proficiency Test in the Professional Medical Program" (Uji Kompetensi Mahasiswa Program Profesi Dokter or UKMPPD). If they pass the test, they can take the Hippocratic Oath and at then entitled to use Dokter (dr.) before their name. Note that "dr." is used for medical graduates, while Dr. (or incorrectly DR. i.e. Doktor) is used for PhD holders. Then they need to take a year-long internship course in primary health care clinics (also known as Puskesmas) or primary hospitals to practice as a general practitioner under supervision of senior doctors. Those who wished to further their study in a specialization can take a graduate course and will be entitled to use "Specialist of ..." after their name (e.g.: Sp.A for Spesialis Anak = Pediatrician). A graduate course of medicine is equal to a residency program. It requires candidates to study for four years followed by an internship in a hospital.
Iran In Iran, Medical education begins after high school. No pre-med course or BSc degree is required. The eligibility is determined through the rank applicants obtain in the public university entrance exam being held every year throughout the country. The entry to medical school is competitive and only students with the highest rank are accepted into medical program. The primary medical degree is completed in 7–7.5 years. On the final years (last 1–2 years) medical students need to do a research on a medical topic and provide thesis as part of their trainings. Medical graduates are awarded a certificate in general medicine, called "Professional Doctorate in Medicine" validated by the "Ministry of Health and Medical Education" of Iran. All physicians will obtain license and medical council registration number from the "Medical Council of Iran" before they officially begin to practice. They may subsequently specialize in a specific medical field at medical schools offering the necessary qualifications.
Israel
There are seven university medical schools in Israel, located at the Technion in Haifa, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev in Beersheba, Tel Aviv University, the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, the medical school of Bar-Ilan University in Safed, Reichman University in Herzliya, and Ariel University. Most follow the European 6-year model although some have 4-year programs for students with degrees in certain biological sciences similar to the US system. The entrance requirements of the various schools of medicine are very strict. Israeli students require a high school Baccalaureate average above 100 and psychometric examination grade over 740, which corresponds to the 99th percentile. Candidates achieving these demanding cognitive requirements are then selected according to their ranking in the Mor and Mirkam MMI personality tests. Approximately 30% of applicants pass the Mor and Mirkam tests and are accepted into medical school. There is a shortage of medical school spots in Israel. In the past, the Technion Medical School, Ben Gurion University, and Tel Aviv University Sackler Faculty of Medicine offered 4-year MD programs for North American students who with college degrees who took the MCAT and were interested in completing rigorous medical education in Israel before returning to the US or Canada, but discontinued those programs to free up resources to train more Israeli doctors. Two additional medical schools are planned to open at the Weizmann Institute of Science in Rehovot and the University of Haifa. Following graduation from the 6-year or 4-year program, all graduates are required to do a 1-year internship to be licensed by the Ministry of Health and practice medicine professionally. Residency takes 4 (Internal Medicine, Family Medicine) to 7 (Neurosurgery) years.
Italy In Italy, before the Bologna process, the degree of "Dottore in Medicina e Chirurgia" (literally Doctor in Medicine and Surgery, from the Latin Medicinae Doctor et Chirurgiae) is awarded after completion of at least six years of study and clinical training in a university and after the submission of a thesis, that consists of original research. However, spurred by the Bologna process, a major reform instituted in 1999 to align University programmes with the more universal system of undergraduate (bachelor's degree) and postgraduate studies (master's and doctoral degrees) and as such the degree of 'Dottore in Medicina e Chirurgia' is no longer offered and was replaced with the 'Laurea Magistrale in Medicina e Chirurgia' (Master of Medicine and Surgery). In this context, the new Laurea Magistrale a ciclo unico in Medicina e Chirurgia is a six-year second cycle degree, equivalent to a master's degree (360 ECTS credits) which can be earned in a six-year programme and requires a scientific research thesis. Consequently, the new medical degrees in Italy is considered to be equivalent to a Medical Doctor or Doctor of Medicine (MD) Master's degree academically and legally.
Kazakhstan In Kazakhstan, professional medical education leads to a first professional degree commonly referred to as a Doctor of Medicine (MD), though the exact title may vary by institution. Medical programs typically last five to six years and combine foundational science courses with clinical training in hospitals and outpatient settings. Some universities, such as Nazarbayev University, offer graduate-entry MD programs for students who have already completed a relevant bachelor's degree, while most other programs admit students directly from secondary school, often with a preparatory year to strengthen foundational knowledge. Admission for school-leavers is generally based on performance in the Unified National Test (UNT; Ұлттық бірыңғай тестілеу, ҰБТ) and may include university-specific entrance exams or interviews. Graduates may pursue postgraduate medical training, including residency programs, and must obtain a medical activity license from the Ministry of Healthcare to legally perform medical services in Kazakhstan.
Latvia In Latvia, the duration of basic medical education is six years and leads to the Doctor of Medicine degree (ārsta grāds or MD). This degree is done full time and earns you 240 credits or 360 ECTS. The level acquired by this degree at the Latvian Qualifications Framework is similar to (EQF) level which is at is Level 7 and at the International Standard Classification of Education (ISCED) level is also Level 7. These levels indicate this qualification to be Masters level which is contrary to what North American MD is since it is considered a higher standing Bachelor or 1st Professional degree.
Lithuania In Lithuania, the duration of basic medical education is six years and leads to the Doctor of Medicine degree (Aukštojo mokslo diplomas, nurodantis suteiktą gydytojo kvalifikaciją or MD). This degree is considered a Masters of Health Science degree.
Malaysia In Malaysia, there are two types of MDs, one being for a basic medical degree while the other being a doctoral degree, depending on the awarding universities. The basic medical degree MDs (Similar to the MBBS awarded by other local universities) are awarded by both private and public universities, mostly are trained as an undergraduate 5-year course, however, with the establishment of Perdana University, it became the first university in Malaysia to provide a 4-year graduate entry course. Examples of universities in Malaysia offering the M.D degree are:
University Sains Malaysia National University of Malaysia University Putra Malaysia Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman UCSI University MDs are being awarded as a doctoral degree in public universities such as University of Malaya.
Philippines
In the Philippines, the MD is a first professional degree in medicine. To be accepted in Philippine medical schools, one must have finished a college degree before one can proceed to have a medical education. It is attained by either completing a 4-year degree or a 5-year degree (with internship included) from an accredited institution private and public Medical School by the Association of Philippine Medical Colleges and the Commission on Higher Education. The MD degree does not permit the practice of medicine but qualifies the degree-holder to apply for registration to the Professional Regulatory Commission. Registration to the commission through completion of internship and examinations will grant the privilege of practicing medicine in the Philippines. Moreover, the licensed Physician has the option to proceed for medical specialization and the taking of diplomate board examinations conducted by the respective board of medical specialists in a particular field.
Poland In Poland the title/professional degree of lekarz (abbreviated lek.), also the name of the profession (physician), is granted after completing a six-year medical program, study (students apply to it directly after graduating high school with matura) and is equivalent to magister, magister inżynier or magister sztuki (master). Many medical higher schools in Poland also offer medicine programs in English, which award the Doctor of Medicine (MD) degree. In contrast, a higher, doctoral academic research degree in medicine resembling a PhD is named doktor nauk medycznych (abbreviated dr n. med.) (Doctor of Medical Sciences), or even higher scientific degree after habilitation, doktor habilitowany nauk medycznych (dr hab. n. med.) (can be treated as doctor of science). Specialization is valued similarly to a specialization in the English system. It is not a pre-requisite for a dr n. med. or dr hab. n. med. which are an academic/scientific, not a professional titles in Poland.
Romania Romanian medical programs last for six years (including clinical practice), which is the long-cycle first professional degree and concludes with a final licensing examination (licența), based on the dissertation of the student's original research. The degree awarded is 'Doctor-Medic' and graduates are entitled to use the title "Dr."
Russia
Medical universities in Russia offer a six-year curriculum leading to award a professional graduate degree, called qualification (degree) of "specialist" (Diploma of Specialist; in medicine, Diploma of Physician). The title of Doctor of Medical Sciences (Russian: доктор медицинских наук, "doktor medicinskikh nauk" abbreviated д. м. н.) is a higher research doctoral degree, which may be earned after the Candidate of Medical Sciences (the latter is informally regarded in Russia as equivalent to the PhD).
Serbia In Serbia, the MD degree is awarded upon completion of six years of study at a School of Medicine immediately after high school, after which a six-month residency following a national exam has to be completed in order to complete the degree.
Singapore The American Duke University has a medical school based in Singapore (Duke-NUS Medical School), and follows the North-American model of styling its first professional degree "Doctor of Medicine" ("MD"), consid. By contrast, the Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine at the National University of Singapore confers MB BS as the first professional degree.
Slovakia Slovakia's medical education is offered at four medical schools in the country. Two of them are faculties of the Comenius UniversityJessenius School of Medicine in Martin, and there is a second medical school in Bratislava Slovak Medical University in Bratislava (SZU) while the fourth one is the Pavol Josef Šafarik University in Košice. Both the Jessenius School of Medicine and the Faculty of Medicine in Košice have several international students. The Jessenius School of Medicine has almost a thousand international students, most from Norway. Admission to the medical schools is based on entrance examination that can be undergone once a year. The program is a six-year program in general medicine with a strictly preclinical and clinical division. The preclinical years are the two first, and a