Geographic information system (GIS) is a commonly used tool for environmental management, modelling and planning. As simply defined by Michael Goodchild, GIS is as "a computer system for handling geographic information in a digital form". In recent years it has played an integral role in participatory, collaborative and open data philosophies. Social and technological evolutions have elevated digital and environmental agendas to the forefront of public policy, the global media and the private sector. Government departments routinely use digital spatial platforms to plan and model proposed changes to road networks, building design, greenbelt land, utility provision, crime prevention, energy production, waste management and security. Non-profit organizations also incorporate geospatial and web-mapping approaches into political campaigns to lobby governments, to protest against socially or environmentally harmful companies, and to generate public support. Private business, whether in land management, resource extraction, retail, manufacturing or social media for example, also incorporate GIS into overall profit-making strategies.
Citizen science and GIS Citizen science is part of the wider emphasis upon public involvement in expert fields across Western democracies. The term is "often used to describe communities or networks of citizens who act as observers in some domain of science". Although more narrowly used to describe the shift to specifically user-generated forms of knowledge creation, it has been routinely invoked in both the public participatory GIS and environmental governance literature at large.
National Audubon Society: Gulf Spill Bird Tracker Much of the citizen science literature is grounded in wildlife study. For example, Goodchild references the National Audubon Society's Christmas Bird Count (CBC) as a classic case of citizen science in action. Each year over the winter period, the American conservation organization encourages volunteer bird-watchers to gather information on the number of bird species in their local area. Once field data has been collected, each volunteer is able to submit their bird sightings into an online database, for the benefit of both scientific researchers and bird enthusiasts. The eBird project – enabling the general public to explore a range of map- and chart-based bird species datasets – is a result of these yearly mass volunteer events. Of particular interest is the Gulf Spill Bird Tracker; an interactive sightings map for ten species deemed at risk from the Deepwater Horizon oil spill in 2010. Gulf Coast bird watchers were encouraged (at the time when it was live) to submit their sightings of a range of at-danger birds (such as the brown pelican, roseate spoonbill and the Wilson's plover), to help aid the clean-up operation, and pin-point beaches most affected by the oil spill. The National Audubon Society has been deeply involved in the Gulf Oil Response since the disaster, and has a dedicated program to co-ordinate resources, liaise with local government, and deploy equipment post-spill. Their 6-month report brought together some of these key factors. Not only was the National Audubon Society's citizen science initiative highlighted as the "backbone ... for understanding the [immediate] impact of the disaster", but also for long-term efforts to monitor the health of imperilled species in the Gulf Coast region. Moreover, their grassroots ethos has mobilized a vast number of Gulf volunteers to "urge elected officials and government agencies to hold polluters like BP accountable", for the financial, environmental, economic and social costs associated with such disasters. This is perhaps the most obvious example of web-based mapping software (a more "citizen-friendly" form of GIS) and environmental governance discourses colliding head on. The notion of volunteered, user-generated, citizen data is the guiding mantra for such projects, and the cornerstone of any wider attempts to lobby national governments, engage with local community groups, and generate scientific research.
Mapping for Change Another example of citizen science and GIS in action is taken from inside the academy. University College London (UCL) and London 21 sustainability network's Mapping for Change initiative has encouraged voluntary groups, local authorities and development agencies to build map-based projects to support political, social and environmental aims. They even provide a noise mapping toolkit on the Mapping for Change website itself, designed to help local communities gather evidence of intrusive and unwanted environmental nuisances and hazards. The Royal Docks community in London has used such a toolkit to help present their concerns to the Greater London Authority Environment Committee over plans to expand London City Airport. Armed with sound meters, survey sheets and access to an online mapping platform, residents were able to monitor noise levels; from overhead planes and passing motor vehicles, to birdsong and ambient river sounds. Their data was then visualized in various formats to help advance their argument. Royal Docks' residents are continually plagued by planes taking-off and landing at London City Airport, and plans to expand the number of flights a year by 50% (up to 120,000) were opposed by local communities on the basis that it would decrease their quality of life. GIS and citizen science go hand-in-hand. Web-based mapping platforms serve as useful tools for national conservation societies, local community groups and planning departments to compile tangible data on environmental issues. Voluntary, grassroots approaches can help compile lay knowledges that feed back into more formal political frameworks.
Environmental justice At a local level, GIS has been frequently used to engage stakeholders in the planning of environmentally "bad" sites. Nuclear power stations, wind farms, landfill sites, and other energy facilities are often subject to NIMBY opposition for aesthetic, health and social reasons. This is despite their capacity to produce "good" economic factors or employment opportunities. GIS has thus found itself deployed alongside broader cost-benefit analysis (CBA), and multi-criteria decision analysis (MCDA) approaches to socio-political conflict. Environmental Justice (EJ) activists believe these decisions act to further embed racial and class divides. GIS provides an important angle to the EJ movement.
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