Glass in sub-Saharan Africa mostly consists of the importation of glass beads into sub-Saharan Africa, shipped primarily from the Middle East and India as early as 200-300 AD; later, from Portugal, the Netherlands, and Venice. Due to various differences in cultural histories and environmental resources, West African nations developed glass traditions distinct from Egypt, North Africa, and the rest of the world. As most African cultures have long histories of crafting and adornment with beads made from wood, bone and shell, the introduction of glass as a bead material was widely and rapidly received. The exchange of glass beads for local goods such as ivory, gold and slaves aided in the accumulation of wealth and creation of unequal power dynamics still apparent today. Archaeological evidence, primarily from various burial sites from the West and coastal port cities in the East, confirm the import of hundreds of thousands of glass beads. These assemblages boast rich varieties in shape, color, texture and patterning. While most glass in sub-Saharan Africa was imported as pre-formed beads, there is evidence of the importation of glass fragments and ingots to be used in local beadmaking practices. Preliminary excavations also exhibit evidence of indigenous glass production from raw materials, a technology previously thought unknown to this region of the world. Recent evidence has shown that glass making may have been started separate from the general glass trade as early as the 1500s.
Cultural and historical significance
Symbolism In contemporary oral traditions amongst the Yoruba peoples of Ife, Nigeria it is recounted that Olokun, a creator god, was also divinity of the sea, of wealth and of beadmaking. Folklore states that Ife, a historic crafting centre, formed the centre of the universe, and appropriately produced such riches as glass beads. Similarly, blue Aggrey or Akori beads from Benin are believed to originate from a supernatural source and are associated with water and thunder. Glass beads have been linked to a number of religious and symbolic practices, primarily as offerings to deities at sacred locations and constructed shrines. As subsistence-level herding was common throughout much of sub-Saharan Africa, bead adornment was an apt medium for self and cultural expression; whereas a more permanent art form would have proven impractical. Through various bead shape formations, coloring choices and assemblage methods, individuals were able to express complex information which was particularly useful in the absence of written language. Notions such as age, marital status and relative economic wealth were communicated through careful selection of symbolic glass beads. The remelting and reworking of existing beads also suggests that the shape and style of glass beads held specific cultural values; various regions were able to imitate more favorable foreign styles, create unique forms or produce much larger beads than what was available through international trade, effectively expressing local distinctiveness. Glass beads also provided a means of connecting with ones ancestors. Known as Heirloom beads, these beads were typically translucent, resembling wax, having a discoid shape and usually could be dated back to the middle and late Iron Age. Whether strung as jewellery, attached to clothing or stored unassembled, Heirloom beads were extremely prized and often passed down from generation to generation.
Beads as economic wealth Glass beads in sub-Saharan Africa were used as an economic tool, denoting wealth and political power. Yoruba kings, or Obas, often encouraged complicated and abundant glass beadworking as a visual symbol of their nation's wealth. Production of beads in great quantities could also be offered by Obas to various deities as a symbol of appreciation of such granted political and economic power. Aje Ilekes, discs of melted cullet (recycled material) glass with beads embedded, were produced by intentionally destroying and remelting glass beads, serving as a status symbol of power and wealth. Aje Ilekes are still used today as a monetary system, often exchanged as wedding dowry. In the archaeological record it is common to find numerous glass beads and beadworking tools such as stone anvils and crucibles included in burial sites suggesting the objects’ cultural and economic importance.
Importation and trade
Analysis and chronology
Diagnostic analysis Glass as a bead material proved particularly suitable for exportation to sub-Saharan Africa due to its durable quality and its extremely portable nature. While we know that millions of glass beads have made their way through the African continent, the identification of origin and relative date is often difficult to determine. The working, forming and decorating of glass beads often took place at sites independent of the primary production of glass from raw materials. During this secondary beadworking stage, primary glass from multiple geographic locations could potentially be mixed and melted together in a single batch. Colorants derived from mineral deposited spanning various regions were probably also added before reaching a beadworking site. What's more, beadworking and beadmaking processes almost always involved the reuse and recycling of materials, each time including new chemical contaminants. The tracing of glass beads by means of their chemical footprints is therefore often unfeasible. Unfortunately, difficulties arise when tracing glass beads by their physical characteristics as well. Shape, size, color and decoration in beads were commonly imitated and recreated across broad geographical and temporal ranges, effectively complicating diagnostic analysis. Additionally, the life span of glass beads was typically much longer than other materials. Beads such as Heirloom Beads were prized precisely because they had been passed down from generation to generation; again, making dating near impossible.
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