This glossary of agriculture is a list of definitions of terms and concepts used in agriculture, its sub-disciplines, and related fields, including horticulture, animal husbandry, agribusiness, and agricultural policy. For other glossaries relevant to agricultural science, see Glossary of biology, Glossary of ecology, Glossary of environmental science, and Glossary of botanical terms.
A
abattoir See slaughterhouse.
aboiteau Plural aboiteaux. A sluice or conduit built beneath a coastal dike, with a hinged gate or a one-way valve that closes during high tide but remains open during low tide, preventing salt water from flowing into the sluice and flooding the land behind the dike while allowing fresh water precipitation and irrigation runoff to drain from the land into the sea. The term may also refer to a method of land reclamation which relies on these gated sluices to convert tidal flats and coastal marshes into land suitable for agriculture. Aboiteau systems are usually installed several seasons prior to planting to allow time for natural flows of fresh water to drain through the soil and reduce its salinity. This method is practiced in areas with extremely high tidal amplitudes, particularly Atlantic Canada, where large tracts of coastal land would otherwise be rendered useless by regular tidal inundation.
acaricide A pesticide intended to kill or incapacitate members of the arthropod subclass Acari, which includes ticks and mites, either by targeting adults or by preventing the growth and development of their eggs or larvae. Acaricides specifically helpful against ticks may also be known as ixodicides and those specific to mites may be known as miticides. Though ticks and mites are not technically insects, in common usage, acaricides are sometimes referred to as insecticides.
acre (ac) A unit of area traditionally defined as the area of one chain (66 feet) by one furlong (660 feet), equivalent to 43,560 square feet (0.001563 sq mi; 4,047 m2), or about 0.40 hectare.
acreage A quantity of land; several acres considered collectively, united by their ownership, management, usage, geographical location, or some other unifying feature.
acre-foot A customary unit of volume defined as the volume of one acre of surface area to a depth of one foot, commonly used in the United States about large-scale water or soil resources. One acre-foot is equal to 43,560 cubic feet (1,233 m3).
adjuvant A chemical compound added to a pesticide formulation to increase its efficacy or safety.
aerial seeding A type of broadcast seeding in which large quantities of seed are dropped from aircraft flying over crop fields. Aircraft can be useful for quickly seeding vast expanses of land or wherever the terrain makes conventional ground-based seeding methods difficult or impractical, e.g., in marshy or flooded areas, where they are commonly used for sowing rice paddies.
aeroponics The cultivation of plants with the roots suspended in an air or mist environment rather than in soil or a solid aggregate medium, usually inside a closed or partially closed chamber where the properties of the air can be easily controlled. Plants are typically supported by the chamber itself or with foam supports or trellises. Sometimes, only the roots are inside the growth chamber; stems, leaves, flowers, and fruits may or may not be. The primary benefits of aeroponics are increased gas exchange in the root zone and reduced access by pests and pathogens borne by solid or liquid growth media. It is often practiced in research contexts. Aeroponics is sometimes considered a subclass of hydroponics since water is still delivered to the plant via atomized droplets from a mist sprayer. However, unlike conventional hydroponics, the roots are not continuously suspended in flowing water.
agrarian system The dynamic set of economic and technological factors that affect agricultural practices in a particular region.
agrarianism A social or political philosophy that values rural society as superior to urban society and the independent farmer as superior to the paid worker. Agrarianism argues in favor of farming as a way of life that can shape ideal social values.
agribusiness The business of agricultural production, including the entire range of activities and disciplines encompassed by modern food and fiber production chains and those agents and institutions that influence them.
agricultural aircraft
agricultural cooperative Also farmers' co-op or simply a co-op. Any association of farmers or agricultural businesses who voluntarily pool their resources to meet their common agricultural needs and goals by cooperating in a jointly owned enterprise. Agricultural cooperatives may be distinguished between "service" cooperatives, which provide inputs for agricultural production (seeds, fertilizers, fuels, etc.) or transportation and marketing services to members who run their farms individually, and "production" cooperatives, in which members run their farms jointly using shared land, machinery, or other resources; an example of the latter is collective farming.
agricultural cycle The annual or seasonal cycle of activities related to the production of a particular agricultural product, especially the growth and harvest of plant crops, inclusive of all steps normally involved in the complete process from initial preparations (e.g. tilling, sowing, fertilizing, and irrigating) through sale and distribution of the finished product (e.g. harvesting, storage, packing, and marketing).
agricultural economics A branch of economics concerned with the application of economic theory in optimizing the production and distribution of food, fiber, and other products of agriculture.
agricultural engineering A branch of engineering concerned with agricultural production and processing. It combines elements of mechanical engineering, civil engineering, chemical engineering, and food science, among other disciplines.
agricultural extension The application of new knowledge and techniques obtained through scientific research to agricultural practices by educating farmers and agricultural communities, with the goals of improving the efficiency and productivity of agriculture, improving living standards in rural areas, and raising awareness of environmental issues. The term encompasses a variety of educational and outreach activities organized by professional educators from a wide range of disciplines, often with an emphasis on agricultural marketing, land management, sustainability, food safety, and public health.
agricultural fencing Any fence or barrier used to keep domestic or wild animals (or humans) inside or outside of an agricultural area. Fencing materials and designs vary widely depending on terrain and the kinds of animals they are intended to deter, though wooden logs, barbed wire, and electrified fences are common. They must often be continuous for long distances to surround farms or pastures. In many places, ranchers are required by law to build fences to enclose their grazing livestock within designated rangeland; in others, livestock are allowed to roam freely, and responsibility for fencing belongs to those who wish to prevent animals from accessing their land.
agricultural land Any land devoted solely to agriculture, i.e., the deliberate and systematic reproduction of living organisms to produce commodities that humans can use. In the broadest sense, agricultural land may also include certain types used only partially or seasonally for agricultural purposes, such as pastures and wild forests. Colloquially, the term is often used interchangeably with farmland, cropland, and arable land, though these terms may also be considered technically distinct.
agricultural machinery The mechanical or electrical tools, devices, and structures used in farming or any other type of agriculture. The broadest definition includes handheld power tools, but in general usage the term implies huge motorized machines, particularly tractors and the many types of farm implements which they tow and/or supply power to. The mechanization of agricultural tasks is a defining element of industrial agriculture.
agricultural productivity A measure of the economic productivity of a given quantity of agricultural land (or any other agricultural input), typically expressed as the ratio of outputs to inputs. In modern agricultural industries, "output" is often quantified as the market value of the agricultural product at the end of the production chain (i.e., immediately before its purchase by a consumer).
agricultural recession A period of economic recession for an agricultural industry, characterized chiefly by low crop prices and/or low incomes for farming operations.
agricultural science Also agriscience or ag science, and often pluralized as in agricultural sciences. The application of scientific methods to agriculture, or the study of agriculture as a scientific discipline. It is a multidisciplinary field encompassing all elements of the natural, economic, and social sciences which are used in the practice and understanding of agriculture. A professional in this field may be called an agricultural scientist or agriculturist.
agriculture The science and art of cultivating plants, animals, or other living organisms in order to produce any of a variety of products that can be used by humans, most commonly food, fibers, fuels, and raw materials.
agriculturist Also agriculturalist, agricultural scientist, agrologist, or agronomist. A professional in the science, practice, and management of agriculture and agribusiness.
agritourism Any primarily agricultural operation or activity that brings visitors to a farm or ranch, either for direct-to-consumer sales (e.g. farm stands and "You-Pick" operations), education, hospitality, recreation, or entertainment.
agrivoltaics The simultaneous use of land area for both solar energy production and agriculture, by installing solar panels in the same spaces where crops are grown or animals are raised.
agrobiology The study of plant nutrition and growth, especially as a means of increasing crop yield.
agroecology The study of ecology as it pertains to agriculture, particularly the application of knowledge about ecological processes to agricultural production systems.
agroecosystem An ecosystem that supports an agricultural production system, such as in a farm or garden; the network of ecological interactions that influences and is influenced by the human practice of agriculture. Agroecosystems are the basic unit of study in agroecology.
agroforestry The combination of the knowledge and practices of agriculture and forestry, resulting in a system of land use in which forest trees or shrubs are grown around or among agricultural crops or pastureland, with the goal of enhancing the functionality and sustainability of a farming system. Agroforestry shares principles with intercropping but may involve complex ecological interactions between hundreds of species.
agrology The branch of soil science concerning the agricultural production of crop plants. The term is often used interchangeably with agronomy, agricultural science, and agricultural soil science.
agronomy The science and technology of producing and using plants for food, fuel, fiber, and land restoration.
algaculture A specialized branch of aquaculture involving the cultivation of algae, with the goal of producing any of a variety of products that can be used by humans, including food ingredients, fertilizers, colorants and dyes, pharmaceuticals, and chemical feedstock.
alley cropping An agroforestry technique in which annual field crops are grown in the open "alleys" between widely spaced rows of planted trees. Many different species have been cultivated in these systems but the cash crops are usually staples such as wheat, corn, soybeans, and hay, while the trees are commonly large hardwood fruit and nut trees such as walnut, pecan, persimmon, and willow; trees that harbor nitrogen-fixing microorganisms or that have deep taproots capable of drawing large quantities of nutrients to the soil surface are especially valuable. Alley cropping is popular as a form of sustainable and value-added polyculture, where the presence of trees confers many benefits normally absent from traditional open fields, including improved nutrition and moisture retention, shade, and protection from extreme weather. Trees may also yield useful produce, fuelwood, or fodder in their own right, potentially allowing farmers to diversify their sources of income as well.
animal engine Any machine powered by an animal. Domestic animals, especially horses, mules, donkeys, oxen, and dogs, have frequently been trained by humans to provide power for various agricultural machinery and operations such as ploughing and milling.
animal feed See fodder.
animal unit A standard measure, based on feed requirements, used to combine various classes of livestock according to size, weight, age, and intended use. On federal lands in the United States, one animal unit represents one mature cow, bull, steer, heifer, horse, or mule, or five sheep or goats, all over six months of age.
animal-free agriculture Also veganic farming. Any agricultural practice or farming method that does not make use of animals or animal products, such as farmed animal manures. Animal-free agriculture may use organic or non-organic techniques.
apiculture Also beekeeping. The maintenance of colonies of bees, commonly in human-made beehives, by humans for any of a variety of purposes, including collecting honey or other products created by bees, pollinating crops, and breeding bees for sale. A location where bees are kept is called an apiary and a person who practices apiculture is called an apiarist or beekeeper.
aquaculture Also aquafarming. The cultivation of aquatic organisms in either freshwater or saltwater habitats, including fish, crustaceans, molluscs, aquatic plants, and others, with the goal of producing any of a variety of products that can be used by humans. Branches of aquaculture include pisciculture, algaculture, and mariculture.
aquaponics A variant of hydroponic agriculture that recycles nutrient-rich waters sourced from an aquaculture operation and uses them to feed hydroponically grown plants.
arable land Any land which is capable of producing viable agricultural crops in its present state, and which does not require substantial clearing or other improvements apart from routine tillage operations. This may include both natural, unaltered landscapes that are fertile enough to immediately support agriculture, as well as land that has been made arable by previous modification and cultivation. Colloquially, the term is often used interchangeably with farmland, cropland, and agricultural land, though these terms may also be considered technically distinct.
arboricide 1. A pesticide intended to kill trees, shrubs, or other woody plants. See also herbicide. 2. The intentional or unintentional killing of trees.
artificial daylight supplementation
artificial selection Also selective breeding. The process by which humans use animal breeding and plant breeding to selectively control the development of particular phenotypic traits in organisms by choosing which individual organisms will reproduce and create offspring. Artificial selection involves the deliberate exploitation of knowledge about genetics and reproductive biology in the hope of producing desirable characteristics in descendant organisms. It is widely practiced in agriculture, but it may also be unintentional and may produce unintended results.
assarting The act of clearing forested land in order to prepare it for agriculture or other purposes.
B
backfat The fat covering the back of a live animal or a carcass, especially beef cattle. The amount of backfat on an animal is often used as a metric for estimating yield before it is slaughtered.
backgrounding The preparation of young cattle for living in a feedlot by getting them accustomed to confinement facilities and processed feed.
bale 1. A large cylindrical or rectangular bundle of compressed hay, straw, cotton, wool, or other plant or animal fibers which have been compacted and bound together by twine, wire, netting, or plastic wrap for easy movement and handling. Bales are usually made by machines known as balers. 2. A unit of measurement of hay, equal to 10 flakes or approximately 70–90 pounds (32–41 kilograms).
baler Also hay baler. A large farm machine used to cut and compress raked crops, commonly hay, cotton, and silage, into compact bales that are easier to handle, transport, and store. Balers may be towed by or mounted upon a tractor, or they may be self-propelled; they can produce bales of various shapes and sizes, variously bound with twine, strapping, netting, or baling wire.
bale wrapper A tractor-drawn implement which automates the action of completely surrounding bales of hay with plastic, triggering the natural anoxic fermentation that turns hay into silage.
barbed wire Also sometimes barb wire. A type of agricultural fencing consisting of two to five metal rungs or strands, each made from paired steel wires twisted together, with sharp, pointed, nail-like barbs attached at regular intervals. The barbs are intended to poke or scratch livestock and wild animals, discouraging them from climbing or destroying the fence. Barbed wire is widely popular on rangeland and in many other contexts because it is much cheaper and easier to erect than alternative types of fencing.
barn A large agricultural building serving any of a wide variety of purposes, especially as storage space for hay, grain, harvested crops, animal feed, or farm equipment, or as a shelter to house livestock.
barnyard A fenced-in lot or pen adjacent to a barn, used especially to enclose livestock.
barrow A young male domestic pig that has been castrated.
bearing acres Agricultural land or acreage on which plants are being cultivated and are of sufficient maturity to produce a commercially viable crop (even if they are not yet producing at their full capacity).
beaverslide A device used to build very large stacks of loose, unbaled hay to be stored in place in a field, consisting of an inclined plane up which a load of hay is pushed by a pulley-operated platform or basket, as much as 30 feet (9.1 m) in height, in order to be dropped through a large gap to the ground; successive loads are piled on top of each other and allowed to compress naturally under their own weight. The resulting haystacks, which can weigh up to 20 tons, are weatherproof and can be left in the open for multiple seasons. Beaverslides were once widely used in the northwestern United States.
beef cattle Cattle bred or raised specifically for their meat, known as beef, in contrast to cattle raised for other purposes, such as for their milk or so that they can be employed as working animals.
beefalo Also catalo. A hybrid offspring of domestic cattle (Bos taurus) and the American bison (Bison bison); when intentional, usually obtained by crossing a male bovine with a female bison.
beekeeping See apiculture.
biennial bearing Describing a perennial crop that alternates from year to year between extremely productive growing seasons with very high yields and extremely unproductive growing seasons where yields are relatively low and harvests are small. Many fruit trees, including apples, pears, mangoes, and apricots, as well as coffee, bear flowers and fruits that exhibit this irregular production.
billy goat See buck.
bin burn The discoloration and deterioration of harvested grain due to heat during long-term storage in bins.
biochar A fine-grained, porous charcoal produced from organic matter via pyrolysis (i.e. in low-temperature, anoxic conditions) rather than standard combustion. It is often used as a soil amendment to increase soil fertility and sequester carbon.
biodynamic agriculture A type of alternative agriculture which incorporates holistic ecological approaches and aspects of organic and integrated farming but also emphasizes various esoteric perspectives, including spiritual and mystical beliefs about nature. The efficacy of biodynamic agricultural techniques lacks scientific evidence, and the practice has been labeled a pseudoscience.
bioeffector Any viable microorganism or naturally occurring chemical compound which directly or indirectly affects plant growth, development, production, and/or yield quality (e.g. organic fertilizers and biofertilizers) and thus has the potential to reduce or replace use of conventional chemical fertilizers or pesticides.
biofertilizer A substance containing living microorganisms such as bacteria and algae which, when applied to seeds, plant parts, or soil, colonize plant tissues or the rhizosphere surrounding the roots and promote the growth and health of the host plant by increasing the supply or bioavailability of useful nutrients. Biofertilizers serve the same purpose as conventional fertilizers, though instead of delivering nutrients directly to plants they work indirectly by stimulating natural processes (e.g. fixing nitrogen and solubilizing phosphorus) which cause essential nutrients or other growth-promoting substances to accumulate in the local microenvironment; nearby plant tissues can then uptake these nutrients for themselves. The presence of symbiotic microorganisms can improve soil fertility and increase soil organic matter, making them a sustainable alternative to the application of synthetic fertilizers and other agrichemicals.
biofortification The selective breeding or genetic engineering of edible plant crops with the goal of increasing their nutritional value. Though many foods are chemically fortified or enriched with micronutrient additives such as iron and vitamin D during post-harvest processing, biofortification instead attempts to cultivate plant varieties which naturally produce high concentrations of these nutrients while growing, such that the resulting crops already contain high concentrations at the time of harvest.
biofuel Any fuel produced from recently living biomass, as opposed to fuels produced by slow geological processes such as fossil fuels. Biofuels such as bioethanol and biodiesel are commonly produced from agricultural energy crops.
bioinoculant See soil inoculant.
biological farming See organic farming.
biosaline agriculture
biosolarization A variant of soil solarization in which compost or organic amendments are added to the soil before it is covered with transparent plastic, which can promote increased microbial activity and thereby contribute to small but significant increases in soil temperature, potentially speeding up and improving the efficiency of the solarization process.
bioturbation The mixing and turning of soil caused by organisms moving through the soil.
blood meal A byproduct made from the fresh blood of slaughtered animals, commonly used as an organic fertilizer for cultivated plants. It is rich in crude protein and amino acids.
boar An adult male hog of breeding age.
board foot (FBM) Also rendered board-foot and abbreviated as BDFT or BF. A unit of volume of lumber, defined as the volume of a board or plank of wood that is one foot long, one foot wide, and one inch thick, i.e. 12 in × 12 in × 1 in (305 mm × 305 mm × 25.4 mm), which is equivalent to 1⁄12 of a cubic foot (ft3), 144 in3, or 2,360 cm3. The board foot is used to measure rough lumber (before drying and planing) as well as planed lumber.
bobby calf A young bovine calf of either sex which is designated to be slaughtered for its meat. See also vealer.
boll The rounded seed pod of cotton or flax plants, inside of which the seeds are embedded within a cushion of valuable natural fibers.
bolting The process by which certain crops cultivated for their leaves or roots produce flowers or other reproductive parts prematurely, before the crop is intended to be harvested, in an attempt to reproduce sexually and generate seeds. This necessarily diverts resources away from its edible or usable non-reproductive parts, which can negatively impact their flavor and texture and the quality of the harvest in general. The phenomenon is of particular concern in certain annual or biennial vegetable crops, including lettuce, spinach, cabbage, onions, leeks, carrots, and beetroot. Warm temperatures and changes in day length can both trigger the phytohormonal changes that cause bolting, and it may also occur as part of the plant's natural response to stress. In many species it manifests as the sudden rapid growth of unusually elongated stems which, if not removed, will produce an inflorescence.
bone meal A byproduct made from animal bones which have been steamed under high pressure and ground into a powder. A rich source of nitrogen, phosphorus, and calcium, bone meal is commonly used as an organic fertilizer for cultivated plants.
border irrigation A type of flood irrigation in which a gently sloping field is divided into narrow strips by a series of low, parallel ridges of soil which align with the direction of the slope. Water is supplied to the upper edge or border of each strip, between the ridges, which act as levees to guide the flow of water as it moves down the length of the field by gravity. This method is useful for efficiently irrigating large areas of closely growing crops as well as certain row crops and orchards where topography and soils are suitable.
bran Also miller's bran. The hard outer layers surrounding the endosperm in a cereal grain, consisting of the combined aleurone and pericarp and, in maize, also the pedicel. Bran is typically removed along with the germ during milling and thus excluded from refined grains, but remains included in whole grains. After removal it is commonly repurposed as animal feed.
branding A technique for marking and identifying livestock in which a permanent scar, known as a brand, is made in the animal's hide, traditionally by applying an extremely hot or cold branding iron which has been shaped or placed in such a way as to create a unique, specific symbol or series of numbers, usually for the purpose of indicating ownership. Branding may be used in conjunction with other forms of animal identification, including earmarking, ear tagging, and radio-frequency identification (RFID).
branding iron A handheld metal tool with one end shaped into a letter, number, or other symbol, intended as a unique identifier, which is heated, chilled, or electrified and then pressed against the skin of an animal in a process known as branding.
brash 1. The decaying residues of a previous crop, along with any weeds that may be present on or near the soil surface, in an area that has not been ploughed. This debris may impede subsequent cultivation unless it is removed or buried. 2. In forestry, the small branches and foliage removed when trees are felled. Where trees such as hazel are coppiced, brash is often placed over the stool to deter animals from browsing the regrowth.
brashing The pruning of the lower branches of trees grown in arboriculture in order to make physical access easier and improve timber quality. See also coppicing.
breadbasket A geographic region which, because it has a climate and soils well suited to grain farming, produces a large proportion of the total grain (or, by extension, other food products) consumed by a population or economy.
break crop A secondary crop grown in a crop rotation scheme in order to disrupt the repeated cultivation of a primary crop. The break crop species is usually of a different family or genus than the primary crop species, and the most effective break crops not only interfere with the build-up of pathogens but also restore soil fertility.
broadacre An expansive parcel of land suitable for farms practicing large-scale crop production. The term is used primarily in Australia.
broadcast seeding A method of seeding that involves scattering seed over a relatively large and imprecise area, either by hand or mechanically, as opposed to precision seeding and hydroseeding. Broadcast seeding is easier and faster than seeding in rows but usually requires more seed and may result in overcrowded and uneven distributions of plant cover. It is generally reserved for plants that do not have strict spacing or depth requirements or that are easily thinned after germination.
broadfork Also U-fork or grelinette. A handheld farming tool consisting of a series of long metal tines attached to a horizontal crossbar, operated with two long handles extending from either end, which is used to manually break up densely packed soil such as hardpan without inverting or mixing the soil layers and thereby preserving its structure, often as part of no-till or reduced-till seedbed preparation.
broiler Sometimes used interchangeably with fryer. A chicken of either sex that is bred and raised specifically for meat production.
brood 1. A mature female animal, often a hen, which is kept for breeding purposes because of her strong mothering and nurturing instincts. 2. In apiculture, a bee brood, the collective name for the eggs, larvae, and/or pupae of a bee colony; or, more generally, the young offspring of any animal.
brooding Also incubating. 1. An instinctual behavior whereby female birds sit on a clutch of eggs to incubate them prior to hatching, often for very long periods of time without eating or drinking and generally characterized by the near-total devotion of the mother's time and energy to caring for the eggs. Many poultry species will naturally attempt to brood newly laid eggs if they are not collected first. 2. The practice in poultry farming of raising young chickens or turkeys in environments with warm, carefully controlled temperatures during the first few weeks of life.
brown manure Withered or decaying plant material which is used as a mulch or an organic fertilizer simply by leaving it to decompose on the soil surface (rather than tilling it into the soil while still green, as with green manure). Brown manure may consist of uprooted or dehisced crop residues or even whole plants which are specifically grown for this purpose and then sprayed with a selective herbicide to cause them to wilt and die. This practice, known as brown manuring, is often employed as a no-till alternative to other fertilizing techniques.
browsing A type of herbivory in which the herbivore feeds on leaves, soft shoots, or fruits of relatively tall, woody plants such as shrubs and trees, as opposed to grazing, which involves feeding on grasses and other low-lying vegetation. Browsing may also refer to feeding on any non-grasses, including both woody and herbaceous dicots.
Bt crop
buck Also billy goat. An intact adult male goat.
bucking See hay bucking.
bull An adult male bovine animal which has not been castrated (as opposed to a steer, which has been).
bullock See ox.
bumper crop Any crop that yields an unusually large or productive harvest.
bushel
C
calf Plural calves. A young domestic bovine animal of either sex (i.e. a cow or bull), generally weighing less than 500 pounds. The term is usually applied from birth to weaning (which typically occurs around nine months of age), though it is also sometimes used until the animal is a yearling. Calves may be raised to become adult cattle, but are also commonly slaughtered for their meat, called veal, or their hides. The young of many other species, including bison, water buffalo, camels, and deer, are also called calves.
calf hutch An enclosure used to house pre-weaned calves individually.
calving The process of giving birth in cattle, by which a pregnant cow gives birth to a calf.
candling In the poultry egg industry, the process of examining eggs for quality and defects by holding them in front of a bright light source, illuminating the internal contents of the egg through the translucent shell without having to break it open.
cane mill A mill at which sugarcane is ground into raw sugar.
capon A male chicken which has been castrated or neutered before reaching maturity, allowing it to grow faster and obtain a larger adult size.
care farming The practice of farming (or of agricultural activities in general) for the purpose of providing or promoting mental or physical health or well-being, especially as a form of therapy or to aid convalescence or for social or educational services.
carryover The supply of a farm commodity that is not yet used at the end of a marketing season and subsequently stored and made available for sale in the next marketing season. An excessively large carryover may be considered a surplus, and may cause prices to fall.
carton 1. A container used for fruit or other produce leaving a packinghouse. 2. A unit of mass or volume representing a standardized size of these containers, equal to 425 pounds (193 kilograms) or 4⁄5 US bushel (6.4 US dry gallons), respectively.
cash crop Also profit crop. Any crop that is grown so that it can be marketed and sold for profit, as opposed to a subsistence crop, which is grown for the grower's own use. While historically cash crops have often been only a small part of a farm's total yield, almost all modern crops in developed nations are grown primarily for revenue.
castration The surgical removal or chemical impairment of the testes of a male animal, which prevents reproduction (irreversibly in the case of surgery, though potentially reversibly in drug-dependent chemical castration) and also greatly reduces the production of certain hormones, particularly androgens. It is commonly performed on livestock as a method of birth control, to mitigate aggressive or sexual behaviors, or to improve the commercial value of certain products harvested from the mature animal; e.g. steers are usually castrated at a young age in order to prevent age-related hormonal changes that would otherwise make them more difficult to fatten or alter the quality of their meat. The female equivalent is called spaying. See also gelding and neutering.
catalo See beefalo.
catch crop Any fast-growing crop that is grown between successive plantings of a primary crop on the same land. Its practice, known as catch cropping, is a type of succession planting.
cattle A group of large, domesticated, bovid mammals of the genus Bos and especially the species Bos taurus, which are commonly raised as livestock for their meat (known as beef), their milk, their hides, their dung (used as manure or as fuel), or as draft animals or riding animals. Mature female cattle are known as cows, mature male cattle as bulls, and young cattle of either sex as calves, though colloquially "cow" is often used to refer to all bovine animals, irrespective of age or sex.
cattle cycle The cyclical fluctuation of supply and prices observed in cattle markets, analogous to the pork cycle. In the United States, the cattle cycle refers to the approximately 10-year period during which the industry-wide population of beef cattle is alternately expanded and reduced over several consecutive years in response to perceived changes in profitability by beef producers. Low prices occur when cattle numbers or beef supplies are high, precipitating several years of herd liquidation; as cattle numbers decline and supplies diminish, prices gradually begin to rise along with renewed demand, causing cattle producers to begin breeding cattle and expanding their herds again.
cattle drive See droving.
cattle prod See goad.
cattle station See station.
cattleman See rancher.
cellular agriculture The cultivation and production of agricultural products from cell cultures grown in a laboratory, such as cultured meat, by using techniques of molecular biology and biochemistry to directly synthesize the complex mixture of proteins, fats, and other substances which are found naturally in living tissues. Most of the industry is focused on cultivating animal products such as meat, milk, and eggs by growing animal tissues from stem cells in vitro and then simulating the same series of biochemical processes that occurs naturally in actual animal bodies, as opposed to raising and slaughtering farmed livestock as in conventional animal husbandry, which has long been criticized for its negative impacts on the environment, human health, food security, and animal welfare. Cellular agriculture has therefore been championed as a sustainable and ethical alternative, though the necessary procedures and infrastructure are usually highly specific and technical.
cellulosic fiber Any fiber of plant origin, composed of ethers or esters of cellulose, hemicellulose, and/or lignin obtained from the bark, wood, or leaves of plants or another plant-based material. This includes natural fibers such as cotton, linen, jute, and hemp, as well as semi-synthetic fibers such as rayon and cellulose acetate.
census of agriculture The periodic collection, processing, and dissemination of statistical data regarding agricultural activities within a country, state, county, or other polity. Agricultural censuses attempt to accurately measure and classify metrics such as number and size of farms or other holdings, types of land tenure and land use, crop acreage, livestock numbers, agricultural inputs and expenses, productivity and profits, types and uses of facilities and machinery, demographics of owners and workers, product quality, and sustainability, among others. In the United States and many other places, censuses are conducted at the holding level every five years.
center-pivot irrigation Also circle irrigation or water-wheel irrigation. A method of crop irrigation in which a long line of sprinklers mounted upon or dangling from a metal frame with multiple sets of wheels rotates slowly around a pivot at the center of a field, watering a very large circular area centered on this point. Water is usually supplied by a well or an underground pipeline near the pivot, and the wheeled frame is propelled by hydraulic pressure or electric motors. A typical center-pivot line is 400 metres (1,300 feet) long and capable of irrigating a 125-acre (51 ha) circle within a 160-acre (65 ha) square, covering about 78% of the surface area; some systems can also irrigate the corners of the square by means of an end gun at the end of the line or a trailing segment of frame that swings out into the corner areas. Modern center-pivot systems are often fully automated and programmable for specific rates of rotation, variable water distribution patterns, and other precision controls.
cereal Any member of the grass family cultivated for the edible components of its grain, composed of the endosperm, germ, and bran. The term may also refer to the resulting grain itself (the "cereal grain"). Compare pseudocereal.
certified seed Plant seeds that have been approved by a certifying agency or agricultural retailer as meeting established standards of quality and productivity, e.g. of germination, varietal purity, sustainable sourcing, and/or freedom from contamination with disease-causing pathogens, weed seeds, and synthetic chemicals. See also registered seed.
chaff The dry, scaly, protective casing around the seeds of cereal grains, or any other similar plant material. Chaff is generally inedible by humans but is often used as fodder for livestock or is ploughed into the soil as a type of green manure.
chemical fallow The use of chemical herbicides to prevent the growth of vegetation on fallow land.
chemigation Often used interchangeably with fertigation. The practice of delivering any natural or synthetic chemical compound or mixture of compounds (such as fertilizers, pesticides, soil amendments, etc.) to crop plants via the water supply used for irrigation.
chevon The meat of a young goat.
chisel plough Also chisel plow. A type of plough consisting of a long row of multiple shanks which break