Hermes was a proposed spaceplane designed by the French Centre National d'Études Spatiales (CNES) in 1975, and later by the European Space Agency (ESA). It was superficially similar to the American Boeing X-20 Dyna-Soar and the larger Space Shuttle. In January 1985, CNES proposed to proceed with Hermes development under the auspices of the ESA. Hermes was to have been a crewed spaceflight program launched by an Ariane 5 launch vehicle. In November 1987, the project was approved for pre-development from 1988 to 1990, after which authorisation for full development was required. However, the project experienced numerous delays and funding issues. In 1992, Hermes was cancelled due to high cost and unachievable performance, as well as a partnership with the Russian Aviation and Space Agency (RKA) which reduced the need for an independent spaceplane. As a result, no Hermes shuttles were ever built. During the 2010s, it was proposed to resurrect the Hermes vehicle as a partially reusable air-launched spaceplane launch system, known as SOAR.
Development
Origins During the 1960s and 1970s, there was increasing recognition by European nations that more international cooperation would be necessary for large space projects. In 1973, the European Space Research Organisation (ESRO) — a precursor to the European Space Agency (ESA) — commenced development of a heavy expendable launch system later named the Ariane. The French space agency Centre National D'études Spatiales (CNES), desired greater autonomy to avoid overreliance upon NASA, and envisaged a European-built human-capable space vehicle that would operate in conjunction with other ESA assets such as Ariane. In 1976, CNES commenced studies into a crewed version of Ariane. Two different concepts included a capsule and a glider. In 1983, CNES opted to focus on a space plane that would deliver greater convenience, comfort, and cost-effectiveness. A space plane would simplify recovery by having the necessary cross-range manoeuvrability to reach a given point on the Earth within a single day, while providing for a less challenging re-entry environment for the crew and payload. Reusability would also reduce the cost of successive missions. Critical technologies identified included thermal protection, environmental controls, life support systems, aerodynamics, and power. During the mid-1980s, in addition to the Columbus Man-Tended Free Flyer (an independent European space station) and the Ariane 5 heavy launch vehicle, CNES championed the development and production of the Space Shuttle as a European initiative akin to the reusable space vehicle programs of the Soviet Union's Buran and the US Space Shuttle.
Selection
On 18 October 1985, CNES appointed French aerospace company Aérospatiale as the primary contractor for Hermes, the name that had been given to the spacecraft. French aircraft manufacturer Dassault-Breguet was awarded responsibility for the aerodynamic and aerothermal aspects of the design. Arianespace was responsible for the Ariane 5 launcher and a strong candidate to manage operation of the infrastructure for Hermes. On 25 October 1985, the proposal for Hermes was presented to the partner nations of the ESA. A deadline of March 1987 was set for the 'Europeanisation' of the programme, under which portions of work for Hermes was assigned. The work share was attributed 15% to West Germany, 13% to Italy, 7% to Belgium, 5% to the Netherlands, 4% each to the United Kingdom, Spain, and Sweden, and 2% or less to Switzerland, Austria, Denmark and Ireland. Potential participation by Norway and Canada was mooted. France held a 50 percent share of the work, although CNES was open to further redistribution of the work dependent upon individual partners increasing their stake in the programme. Early on, there was optimism that securing the funding from ESA members to proceed would not be difficult. In November 1987, the ESA issued its approval. As envisaged, by 1995 Hermes would enable the ESA to service the planned Columbus Man-Tended Free Flyer (MTFF) (the MTFF was restructured and ultimately manufactured as the Columbus module of the International Space Station). Development of Hermes was to proceed in two phases:
Phase 1: Study and pre-development. Phase 1 was scheduled to end in 1990. Its plans called for the capability to lift 6 astronauts and 4,550 kg (10,030 lb) of cargo, but after the Challenger disaster, an ejection capacity was added to give astronauts at least a small chance of survival in case of catastrophe. Accordingly, the six seats were curtailed to three regular ejection seats, which were chosen over an ejectable crew capsule that would have offered an escape option at heights above 28 km (17 mi). The cargo capacity was reduced to 3,000 kg (6,600 lb). Hermes would not be able to place objects into orbit because its cargo hold could not be opened; that option was abandoned due to weight concerns. Although Hermes was originally viewed as fully reusable (up to 30 re-entries before major service), the limited capacity of the Ariane 5 launcher forced it to leave the Resource Module in orbit. A new resource module would be attached to the Hermes and the entire structure would be launched again. Phase 1 was not completed until the end of 1991 and by then the political climate had changed considerably. The Iron Curtain had been lifted and the Cold War was ending. As a result, ESA commenced a year-long "reflection" period to determine whether it still made sense for Europe to build its own space shuttle and space station or if new partners could be found to share cost and development. Officially, Phase 1 completed at the end of 1992.
Phase 2: Final development, manufacture & initial operations. Phase 2 never began, after ESA and the Russian Aviation and Space Agency (RKA) agreed to cooperate on future launchers and a replacement space station for Mir. Economic concerns prevented RKA from participating in a future launcher program, but at this point ESA's crew transport needs were reoriented towards the capsule system (as opposed to the glider system of Hermes) called for by the joint Russian/European designs. When both Russia and ESA joined with NASA to build the International Space Station, the need for a European crew transport system was eliminated because Russian and American needs were already satisfied. Accordingly, ESA abandoned the Hermes project.
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