science

Influenza D virus

Influenza D virus is a science topic covered in the lgStudy science library. This page brings together a partial reference excerpt, illustrations, worked examples, real-world applications and a short study plan, so you can understand Influenza D virus rather than just read about it. In short: Influenza D virus is a species in the virus genus Deltainfluenzavirus, in the family Orthomyxoviridae, that causes influenza. Influenza D viruses are known to infect pigs and cattle; no human infections from this virus have been observed.

Key takeaways

Influenza D virus belongs to science; place it in that map before memorising details.
Learn the definition first, then one example that makes the definition concrete.
Connect Influenza D virus to a quantity you can measure, compute or draw — that is where exam questions come from.
Reproduce the core statement of Influenza D virus from memory before moving on to harder problems.

Reference excerpt

Influenza D virus is a species in the virus genus Deltainfluenzavirus, in the family Orthomyxoviridae, that causes influenza. Influenza D viruses are known to infect pigs and cattle; no human infections from this virus have been observed. First isolated from pigs in 2011, the virus was categorized as a new genus of Orthomyxoviridae in 2016, distinct from the previously-known Influenzavirus C genus; before then, Influenza D virus was thought to be a subtype of Influenza C virus. Cases of infections from the Type D virus are rare compared to Types A, B, and C. Similar to Type C, Type D has seven RNA segments and encodes nine proteins, while Types A and B have eight RNA segments and encode at least 10 proteins.

Influenza D virus The influenza viruses are members of the family Orthomyxoviridae. Influenza viruses A, B, C, and D represent the four antigenic types of influenza viruses. Of the four antigenic types, influenza A virus is the most severe, influenza B virus is less severe but can still cause outbreaks, and influenza C virus is usually only associated with minor symptoms. Influenza D virus is less common than the other antigenic types, and it is not known to cause any human infections. No samples of influenza D virus were detected in serum samples from humans; however, hemagglutination-inhibiting antibodies against influenza D virus have been detected in humans, with an estimated occurrence of 1.3% in the general population, suggesting that this virus may infect humans as well. However, those antibodies may have been produced after an infection by influenza C virus, the antibodies for which cross-react with the Type D virus. More studies are needed to conclude whether or not the Type D virus can infect humans. Influenza D virus is 50% similar in amino acid composition to influenza C virus, similar to the level of divergence between types A and B, while types C and D have a much greater level of divergence from types A and B. Influenza viruses C and D were estimated to have diverged from a single ancestor over 1,500 years ago, around 482 AD. Influenza D virus itself currently has two lineages, which were estimated to have emerged over 45 years ago, around 1972 AD. Influenza viruses A and B are estimated to have diverged from a single ancestor around 4,000 years ago, while the ancestor of influenza viruses A and B and the ancestor of influenza viruses C and D are estimated to have diverged from a common ancestor around 8,000 years ago. Metatranscriptomics studies have also identified closely related "Influenza C and D-like" viruses in several amphibian and fish species. Influenza A virus can infect a variety of animals as well as humans, and its natural host or reservoir is birds, whereas influenza viruses B, C, and D do not have animal reservoirs. Influenza viruses C and D are not as easily isolated so less information is known about these types, but studies show that they occur worldwide. This virus may be spread through respiratory droplets or by fomites (non-living material) due to its ability to survive on surfaces for short durations. Influenza viruses have a relatively short incubation period (lapse of time from exposure to pathogen to the appearance of symptoms) of 18–72 hours and infect the epithelial cells of the respiratory tract. In cell culture, influenza D virus has demonstrated an ability to replicate well at 37°C, the normal lung temperature, and can also replicate better and in more types of cells than the Type C virus. This study suggests that influenza D virus may be only a few genetic changes away from being able to invade the lower lung, even though the virus does not actively spread among humans and has a much slower mutation rate than the other influenza viruses.

Structure and variation Influenza viruses, like all viruses in the family Orthomyxoviridae, are enveloped RNA viruses with single stranded genomes. The antigens, matrix protein (M1) and nucleoprotein (NP), are used to determine if an influenza virus is type A, B, C, or D. The M1 protein is required for virus assembly and NP functions in transcription and replication. These viruses also contain proteins on the surface of the cell membrane called glycoproteins. Type A and B have two glycoproteins: hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Types C and D have only one glycoprotein: hemagglutinin-esterase fusion (HEF). These glycoproteins allow for attachment and fusion of viral and cellular membranes. Fusion of these membranes allows the viral proteins and genome to be released into the host cell, which then causes the infection. Types C and D are the only influenza viruses to express the enzyme esterase. This enzyme is similar to the enzyme neuraminidase produced by Types A and B in that they both function in destroying the host cell receptors. Glycoproteins may undergo mutations (antigenic drift) or reassortment in which a new HA or NA is produced (antigenic shift). Influenza viruses C and D are only capable of antigenic drift whereas Type A undergoes antigenic shift, as well. When either of these processes occur, the antibodies formed by the immune system no longer protect against these altered glycoproteins. Because of this, viruses continually cause infections.

Identification Influenza viruses C and D are different from Types A and B in their growth requirements. Because of this, Influenza D virus is not isolated and identified as frequently. Diagnosis is by virus isolation, serology, and other tests. Hemagglutination inhibition (HI) is one method of serology that detects antibodies for diagnostic purposes. Western blot (immunoblot assay) and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) are two other methods used to detect proteins (or antigens) in serum. In each of these techniques, the antibodies for the protein of interest are added and the presence of the specific protein is indicated by a color change. ELISA was shown to have higher sensitivity to the HEF than the HI test. Because only Influenza viruses C and D produce esterase, In Situ Esterase Assays provide a quick and inexpensive method of detecting just Types C and D.

… excerpt ends here. Continue reading the full article.

Illustrations

Worked examples

Example 1 — a first encounter with Influenza D virus

Start with the simplest possible case. Write down what Influenza D virus claims or describes in one sentence, then invent the smallest concrete situation in which that sentence is true. In science, the smallest case is usually a single object, a single equation or a single measurement. Check that every symbol or term in your sentence has a meaning in that case.

Example 2 — changing one variable

Take the situation from Example 1 and change exactly one quantity: double it, halve it, or set it to zero. Predict what should happen to Influenza D virus before you calculate. Comparing your prediction with the result is the fastest way to find out whether you understand the idea or only the words.

Example 3 — an exam-style question

Typical questions about Influenza D virus ask you to (a) state it precisely, (b) apply it to given data, and (c) explain a limitation. Practise writing all three answers in under five minutes; the third part is what separates a full-mark answer from an average one.

Applications of Influenza D virus

In research: Influenza D virus appears in science research whenever the underlying quantities have to be modelled precisely. Papers usually cite it as a starting assumption and then explore where it breaks down.
In technology and industry: Engineering practice reuses Influenza D virus in design rules, simulations and safety margins. Knowing the idea lets you read a specification sheet and understand why the numbers look the way they do.
In the classroom: Influenza D virus is common in secondary-school and first-year university syllabi. It links to neighbouring topics Influenza, Orthomyxoviridae, so understanding it makes those chapters shorter.
In everyday life: Look for Influenza D virus outside the textbook — in sport, cooking, traffic, electronics or the sky above you. An example you found yourself is remembered far longer than one you were given.

Ask Teacher Smith questions about this articleOpens your AI tutor with a question about “Influenza D virus” →

Affiliate

Preply — study more efficiently by working with a personal tutor. 50% off.

How to study Influenza D virus in 20 minutes

Read the reference excerpt below once, without taking notes.
Close the page and write down what Influenza D virus means in your own words.
Compare your version with the excerpt and mark what you missed.
Work through the three examples above with pen and paper.
Explain Influenza D virus out loud to somebody else — or to Teacher Smith in the lgStudy chat.

Frequently asked questions

What is Influenza D virus in simple terms?

Why does Influenza D virus matter?

Because it connects several science ideas at once: it gives you a definition you can apply, a quantity you can calculate, and a way to check whether a result is plausible.

How should I study Influenza D virus?

Read the excerpt, restate it from memory, then work through the examples and applications listed on this page. The five-step study plan above takes about twenty minutes.

What does this page cover?

It gives you a compact reference excerpt plus original lgStudy explanations, examples, applications and study material on Influenza D virus.