science

Linguistic areas of the Americas

Linguistic areas of the Americas is a science topic covered in the lgStudy science library. This page brings together a partial reference excerpt, illustrations, worked examples, real-world applications and a short study plan, so you can understand Linguistic areas of the Americas rather than just read about it. In short: The indigenous languages of the Americas form various linguistic areas or sprachbünde that share various common (areal) traits. The following list of linguistic areas is primarily based on Campbell (1997, 2024).

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Reference excerpt

The indigenous languages of the Americas form various linguistic areas or sprachbünde that share various common (areal) traits. The following list of linguistic areas is primarily based on Campbell (1997, 2024).

Overview The languages of the Americas often can be grouped together into linguistic areas or sprachbünde (also known as convergence areas). The linguistic areas identified so far deserve more research to determine their validity. Knowing about Sprachbunds helps historical linguists differentiate between shared areal traits and true genetic relationship. The pioneering work on American areal linguistics was a dissertation by Joel Sherzer, which was published as Sherzer (1976). Lyle Campbell (1997) lists over 20 linguistic areas, many of which are still hypothetical. Note: Some linguistic areas may overlap with others.

Lexical diffusion Pache, et al. (2016) note that the word ‘dog’ is shared across various unrelated language families of the Americas, and use this word as a case study of lexical diffusion due to trade and contact. In California, identical roots for ‘dog’ are found in:

Yurok cʼišah, Karuk čišiːh, Takelma cʼíxi, Yokuts *cʼɨːsas Chimariko šičela, Wintu se-cilaː ‘to tear apart’ Wintun *suku, Maiduan *sɨː, Washo súkuʔ, Miwok *hayu, Costanoan (Awaswas and Chocheño; Chocheño has the form čukuti). Pache, et al. (2016) posit a Wintun origin for this root. *hayu root in Miwok, Pomoan, Wappo, and Hill Patwin Ramaytush puku, Uto-Aztecan *punku Costanoan (Mutsun xučekniṣ, Chalon xučekniṣ, and Rumsen xučːiys), Esselen hučumas (term borrowed from Costanoan; native terms are šošo and šanašo), Salinan (Antoniaño Salinan xuč (pl. xostén) and Migueleño Salinan xučaːi), Chumash (Ineseño Chumash huču, likely borrowed from Salinan) In South America, a root for ‘dog’ is shared by Uru-Chipayan (paku or paqu) and several unrelated neighboring languages of lowland Bolivia (Movima pako, Itonama u-paʔu, and Trinitario paku), as well as Guaicuruan (Mocoví, Toba, and Pilagá pioq). An identical root for ‘dog’ is also shared by Huastec (*sul) and Atakapa (šul), which are very geographically distant from each other although both are located along the Gulf of Mexico coast. Areal words for ‘dog’ are also shared across the U.S. Southeast (Karankawa keš ~ kes, Chitimacha kiš, Cotoname kissa ‘fox’, Huavean *kisɨ), as well as across Mesoamerica. Mesoamerican areal words for ‘dog’ diffused unidirectionally from certain language families to others, and are listed below:

Proto-Mixe-Zoquean *ʔuku > Proto-Zapotec *kweʔkkoʔ (Ixtlán Zapotec beʔkoʔ) > Huastec pik’oʔ, Yucatec pè:k’ P’urhépecha wiču > Chontal wičuʔ Totonacan čiči(ʔ) > Classical Nahuatl čiči

North America

Northern Northwest Coast

This linguistic area was proposed by Jeff Leer (1991), and may be a subarea of the Northwest Coast Linguistic Area. This sprachbund contains languages that have strict head-final (XSOV) syntax. Languages are Aleut, Haida, Eyak, and Tlingit. Leer (1991) considers the strong areal traits to be:

lack of labial obstruents promiscuous number marking periphrastic possessive construction

Northwest Coast

This linguistic area is characterized by elaborate consonant systems. Languages are Eyak, Tlingit, Athabaskan, Tsimshian, Wakashan, Chimakuan, Salishan, Alsea, Coosan, Kalapuyan, Takelma, and Lower Chinook. Phonological areal traits include:

Series of glottalized stops and affricates Labiovelars Multiple laterals s/š opposition c/č opposition voiceless uvular stop q one fricative series, which is voiceless velar fricatives highly limited inventory of labial consonants large inventory of uvular consonants limited vowel systems Typical shared morphological traits include:

reduplication processes: including iterative, continuative, progressive, plural, collective numeral classifiers alienable/inalienable oppositions in nouns pronominal plural nominal plural verbal reduplication signifying distribution, repetition, etc. suffixation of tense-aspect markers in verbs verbal evidential markers locative-directional markers in the verb visibility/invisibility opposition in demonstratives nominal and verbal reduplication signaling the diminutive passive-like constructions (except for Tlingit) negative appearing as the first element in a clause regardless of the usual word order lexically paired singular and plural verb stems

Plateau

The Plateau linguistic area includes Sahaptian, Upper Chinook, Nicola, Cayuse, Molala language, Klamath, Kutenai, and Interior Salishan. Primary shared phonological features of this linguistic area include:

glottalized stops velar/uvular contrasting series multiple laterals Other less salient shared traits are:

labiovelars one fricative series velar (and uvular) fricatives series of glottalized resonants (sonorants) contrasting with plain resonants (except in Sahaptin, Cayuse, Molala, and Kiksht) word-medial and word-final consonant clusters of four or more consonants (except in Kiksht, and uncertain in Cayuse and Molala) vowel systems of only 3 or 4 vowel positions (except Nez Perce, which has 5) vowel-length contrast size-shape-affective sound symbolism involving consonantal interchanges pronominal plural nominal plural prefixation of subject person markers of verbs suffixation of tense-aspect markers in verbs several kinds of reduplication (except in Nicola) numeral classifiers (shared by Salishan and Sahaptian languages) locative-directional markers in verbs different roots of the singular and the plural for various actions, such as 'sit', 'stand', 'take' (except in Kutenai and Lillooet, uncertain in Cayuse and Molala) quinary-decimal numerical system (Haruo Aoki 1975)

Northern California The Northern California linguistic area consists of many Hokan languages. Languages include Algic, Athabaskan, Yukian, Miwokan, Wintuan, Maiduan, Klamath-Modoc, Pomo, Chimariko, Achomawi, Atsugewi, Karuk, Shasta, Yana, (Washo). Features of this linguistic area have been described by Mary Haas. They include:

rarity of uvular consonants: they occur in Klamath, Wintu, Chimariko, and Pomoan retroflexed stops rarity of a distinct series of voiced stops except in the east–west strip of languages including Kashaya Pomo, Wintu-Patwin, and Maidu (this series contains implosion in Maidu) consonant sound symbolism: in Yurok, Wiyot, Hupa, Tolowa, Karuk, and Yana Washo, spoken in the Great Basin area, shares some traits common to the Northern California linguistic area.

… excerpt ends here. Continue reading the full article.

Illustrations

Linguistic areas of the Americas: Map classifying the languages by word order — Map classifying the languages by word order

Worked examples

Example 1 — a first encounter with Linguistic areas of the Americas

Start with the simplest possible case. Write down what Linguistic areas of the Americas claims or describes in one sentence, then invent the smallest concrete situation in which that sentence is true. In science, the smallest case is usually a single object, a single equation or a single measurement. Check that every symbol or term in your sentence has a meaning in that case.

Example 2 — changing one variable

Take the situation from Example 1 and change exactly one quantity: double it, halve it, or set it to zero. Predict what should happen to Linguistic areas of the Americas before you calculate. Comparing your prediction with the result is the fastest way to find out whether you understand the idea or only the words.

Example 3 — an exam-style question

Typical questions about Linguistic areas of the Americas ask you to (a) state it precisely, (b) apply it to given data, and (c) explain a limitation. Practise writing all three answers in under five minutes; the third part is what separates a full-mark answer from an average one.

Applications of Linguistic areas of the Americas

In research: Linguistic areas of the Americas appears in science research whenever the underlying quantities have to be modelled precisely. Papers usually cite it as a starting assumption and then explore where it breaks down.
In technology and industry: Engineering practice reuses Linguistic areas of the Americas in design rules, simulations and safety margins. Knowing the idea lets you read a specification sheet and understand why the numbers look the way they do.
In the classroom: Linguistic areas of the Americas is common in secondary-school and first-year university syllabi. It links to neighbouring topics Indigenous languages of the Americas, Linguistic typology, Sprachbund, so understanding it makes those chapters shorter.
In everyday life: Look for Linguistic areas of the Americas outside the textbook — in sport, cooking, traffic, electronics or the sky above you. An example you found yourself is remembered far longer than one you were given.

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Frequently asked questions

What is Linguistic areas of the Americas in simple terms?

Why does Linguistic areas of the Americas matter?

Because it connects several science ideas at once: it gives you a definition you can apply, a quantity you can calculate, and a way to check whether a result is plausible.

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Read the excerpt, restate it from memory, then work through the examples and applications listed on this page. The five-step study plan above takes about twenty minutes.

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