Mating preferences are qualities that one desires in a romantic or sexual partner. Research across many domains, such as evolutionary biology, psychology, and anthropology, shows that humans display both widely shared (consensual) preferences – like preferences for kindness, intelligence, and health – as well as sex-differentiated preferences shaped by ancestral selection pressures. These preferences are understood within the framework of sexual selection (first proposed by Charles Darwin in 1871) and more contemporary theories that draw on evolutionary explanations, cultural variation, and evidence from actual mating behaviors. These theories account for the variation in desires for certain traits, the divergence of preference between men and women, and the adoption of short-term vs long-term mating strategies. Together, these approaches explain the origins, adaptive functions, and real-word outcomes of human mate preferences.
Influences on human mating preference A study of 37 cultures showed that, generally, culture plays a substantial role in forming human mating preference, accounting for 14% of variance across the study, with sex also having an effect on preference, although a smaller one (2.4%) than culture. The study by Buss et al. indicated the largest difference between cultures affecting mating preference was modern versus traditional attitudes towards mating. It also indicated that sex has an effect on a few mate preferences - for example, appearance and "resource potential" - but little effect on most others.
Sexual selection One of the earliest theories posited to explain mate preferences was Darwin's theory of sexual selection. This theory came about when he noticed that certain characteristics (most famously, the feathers of a male peacock) appeared to have no survival value. Unsatisfied with his theory of natural selection as the primary driver of evolution, he proposed that sexual selection was at play. Namely, Darwin suggested two mechanisms of this evolutionary process. The first mechanism, intrasexual selection, describes the competition with same-sex others for access to mates. This can include directly antagonistic interactions, such as physical contests and fights, or indirect interactions like competition for territory or high status positions. As a result of success in such competitions, the victors are able to mate, meaning that their heritable traits are passed down to offspring with greater frequency. Those who lost do not gain access to mates and have less reproductive success. Over many generations, this differential reproductive success causes the qualities that contribute to winning these competitions (like upper body strength, formidability, or intelligence, for example) to become more common in the population. This pattern shapes preferences because individuals who choose mates with successful, competitive traits have a greater chance of producing children who survive and are reproductively successful themselves. As a result, preferences for such advantageous traits are passed down along with the traits themselves. The second mechanism, intersexual selection (also called epigamic selection), represents one sex's propensity to prefer and, in turn, select specific members of the opposite sex that embody preferred characteristics. Because desired qualities (like physical attractiveness or intelligence, for instance) are notably heritable, individuals who select mates who display such qualities are more likely to have children who also possess them. Over time, this process increases the frequency of preferred traits in the population and also strengthens the preferences themselves (offspring inherit both the desired traits and the preference for them). Thus, this preferential mate choice directly influences one's reproductive success. Both processes work together to select for qualities that enhance an individual's reproductive success, favoring characteristics that improve mating opportunities (even if those characteristics do not directly improve survival) and, importantly, shaping what we deem to be preferable in a mate. These mechanisms have been substantiated across virtually every species that reproduces sexually, highlighting sexual selection theory as a pervasive evolutionary force.
Parental investment Research on human mating strategies is guided by the theory of sexual selection, and in particular, Robert Trivers' concept of parental investment. Trivers defined parental investment as "any investment by the parent in an individual offspring that increases the offspring's chance of surviving (and hence reproductive success) at the cost of the parent's ability to invest in other offspring." The support given to each offspring typically differs between the father and mother. Trivers posited that it is the differential parental investment between males and females that drives the process of sexual selection. In turn, sexual selection leads to the evolution of sexual dimorphism in mate choice, competitive ability, and courtship displays (see secondary sex characteristics). Females have a higher minimal investment in offspring than males. Minimum parental investment is the least required care for successful reproduction. In humans, females have a higher minimum parental investment. They have to invest in internal fertilization, placentation, and gestation, followed by childbirth and lactation. While human males can invest heavily in their offspring as well, their minimum parental investment is still lower than that of females. This same concept can be looked at from an economic perspective regarding the costs of engaging in sexual relations. Females incur the higher costs, as they carry the possibility of becoming pregnant among other costs. Conversely, males have comparatively minimal costs of having a sexual encounter. Therefore, evolutionary psychologists have predicted a number of sex differences in human mating psychologies.
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