In clinical psychology and well-being, mindfulness is the cognitive skill of, or state reached by, intentionally maintaining moment-by-moment awareness of bodily sensations, feelings, thoughts, and immediate surroundings with a non-judgmental or equanimous attitude, counteracting [the mind's] automatic rumination and cognitive elaborations on one's experiences. The term mindfulness derives from the Pali word sati, a significant element of Buddhist traditions, and it incorporates elements from Theravada, Chan, and Tibetan Buddhist meditation techniques. Mindfulness is a secularized form of meditation, the product of a mutual syncretism between eastern spiritual traditions influenced by western esotericism and religion, and western traditions and psychology influenced by these syncretized eastern traditions. In 1975 it was introduced in western medicine by Herbert Benson, and integrated in the 1970s and 1980s into health-programs and psychotherapy by Jon Kabat-Zinn, Zindel Segal, and Mark Williams. They and others in clinical psychology and psychiatry have developed a number of therapeutic applications based on mindfulness interventions for helping people experiencing a variety of psychological conditions. Since the 1990s, secular mindfulness meditation has gained a broad popular acceptance in the West. Clinical studies have documented mental health benefits of mindfulness as well as physical health benefits in different patient categories and in healthy adults and children. Mindfulness research has also long attracted criticism, particularly in its early decades, due to concerns about limited methodological rigor. More recent research, however, has become substantially more rigorous, employing randomized controlled trials, active control groups, and stronger methodological standards. Some critics have also argued that mindfulness is over-commercialized and over-marketed, and that "McMindfulness" strips it of its Buddhist ethical and wisdom roots in favor of a productivity-focused self-help product.
Etymology The Buddhist term translated into English as "mindfulness" originates in the Pali term sati and in its Sanskrit counterpart smṛti. It is often translated as "bare attention", but in the Buddhist tradition it has a broader meaning and application, and the meaning of these terms has become the topic of extensive debate and discussion. The English term mindfulness already existed before it came to be used in a (western) Buddhist context. It was first recorded as myndfulness in 1530 (John Palsgrave translates French pensée), as mindfulnesse in 1561, and mindfulness in 1817. Morphologically earlier terms include mindful (first recorded in 1340), mindfully (1382), and the obsolete mindiness (c. 1200). According to the Merriam-Webster Dictionary, mindfulness may also refer to "a state of being aware". Synonyms for this "state of being aware" are wakefulness, attention, alertness, prudence, conscientiousness, awareness, consciousness, and observation. The Pali-language scholar Thomas William Rhys Davids (1843–1922) first translated sati in 1881 as English mindfulness in sammā-sati "Right Mindfulness; the active, watchful mind". Noting that Daniel John Gogerly (1845) initially rendered sammā-sati as "correct meditation", Davids writes:
sati is literally 'memory' but is used with reference to the constantly repeated phrase 'mindful and thoughtful' (sato sampajâno); and means that activity of mind and constant presence of mind which is one of the duties most frequently inculcated on the good Buddhist." According to Bryan Levman, "the word sati incorporates the meaning of 'memory' and 'remembrance' in much of its usage in both the suttas and the [traditional Buddhist] commentary, and [...] without the memory component, the notion of mindfulness cannot be properly understood or applied, as mindfulness requires memory for its effectiveness". According to Robert Sharf, smṛti originally meant 'to remember', 'to recollect', 'to bear in mind', as in the Vedic tradition of remembering the sacred texts. The term sati also means 'to remember'. John D. Dunne says that the translation of sati and smṛti as 'mindfulness' is confusing. A number of Buddhist scholars have started trying to establish 'retention' as the preferred alternative. Bhikkhu Bodhi also describes the meaning of sati as 'memory'.
Meaning and definitions There is a multiplicity of definitions, which has limited the comparibility of research outcomes. Mindfulness can be defined as a practice (e.g. a set of skills and techniques), a mental state, or as a trait. While often defined as "present-centered awareness" or "bare attention", these qualifications have been questioned and criticized, as mindfulness in Buddhism also involves discernment and ethical judgment. To give an adequate introduction to these aspects, first the Buddhist background is treated, and then the psychological scientific approaches.
Buddhism
Secular mindfulness is derived from Buddhist meditation techniques; the word 'mindfulness' translates the terms sati and smriti. These have multiple meanings, centering on memory and the remembrance of the dharma; present-centered awareness, and ethical correct behavior and self-restrainment.
Remembrance of the dharmas The Pali word sati, which is commonly translated as 'mindfulness', carries the connotation of memory. Early Buddhist texts describe the concept not only as awareness of sense perceptions but also as recollection of the Buddha's teachings and past events:
Sati is required not only to fully take in the moment to be remembered, but also to bring this moment back to mind at a later time. [...] This twofold character of sati can also be found in some verses in the Sutta Nipāta, which instruct the listener to set out with sati, subsequent to an instruction given by the Buddha. In these instances sati seems to combine both present moment awareness and remembering what the Buddha had taught.
In the Satipaṭṭhāna-sutta the term sati means to remember the dharmas, whereby the true nature of phenomena can be seen. Sharf refers to the Milindapañha, which said that the arising of sati calls to mind the wholesome dhammas such as the four foundations of mindfulness, the five faculties, the five powers, the seven awakening-factors, the noble eightfold path, and the attainment of insight. According to Rupert Gethin,
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