In number theory and algebraic geometry, a modular curve Y(Γ) is a Riemann surface, or the corresponding algebraic curve, constructed as a quotient of the complex upper half-plane H by the action of a congruence subgroup Γ of the modular group of integral 2×2 matrices SL(2, Z). The term modular curve can also be used to refer to the compactified modular curves X(Γ) which are compactifications obtained by adding finitely many points (called the cusps of Γ) to this quotient (via an action on the extended complex upper-half plane). The points of a modular curve parametrize isomorphism classes of elliptic curves, together with some additional structure depending on the group Γ. This interpretation allows one to give a purely algebraic definition of modular curves, without reference to complex numbers, and, moreover, prove that modular curves are defined either over the field of rational numbers Q or a cyclotomic field Q(ζn). The latter fact and its generalizations are of fundamental importance in number theory.
Analytic definition The modular group SL(2, Z) acts on the upper half-plane by fractional linear transformations. The analytic definition of a modular curve involves a choice of a congruence subgroup Γ of SL(2, Z), i.e. a subgroup containing the principal congruence subgroup of level N for some positive integer N, which is defined to be
Γ ( N ) = { ( a b c d ) : a ≡ d ≡ 1 mod N and b , c ≡ 0 mod N } . {\displaystyle \Gamma (N)=\left\{{\begin{pmatrix}a&b\\c&d\\\end{pmatrix}}:\ a\equiv d\equiv 1\mod N{\text{ and }}b,c\equiv 0\mod N\right\}.}
The minimal such N is called the level of Γ. A complex structure can be put on the quotient Γ\H to obtain a noncompact Riemann surface called a modular curve, and commonly denoted Y(Γ).
Compactified modular curves A common compactification of Y(Γ) is obtained by adding finitely many points called the cusps of Γ. Specifically, this is done by considering the action of Γ on the extended complex upper-half plane H* = H ∪ Q ∪ {∞}. We introduce a topology on H* by taking as a basis:
any open subset of H, for all r > 0, the set { ∞ } ∪ { τ ∈ H ∣ Im ( τ ) > r } {\displaystyle \{\infty \}\cup \{\tau \in \mathbf {H} \mid {\text{Im}}(\tau )>r\}}
for all coprime integers a, c and all r > 0, the image of { ∞ } ∪ { τ ∈ H ∣ Im ( τ ) > r } {\displaystyle \{\infty \}\cup \{\tau \in \mathbf {H} \mid {\text{Im}}(\tau )>r\}} under the action of
( a − m c n ) {\displaystyle {\begin{pmatrix}a&-m\\c&n\end{pmatrix}}}
where m, n are integers such that an + cm = 1. This turns H* into a topological space which is a subset of the Riemann sphere P1(C). The group Γ acts on the subset Q ∪ {∞}, breaking it up into finitely many orbits called the cusps of Γ. If Γ acts transitively on Q ∪ {∞}, the space Γ\H* becomes the Alexandroff compactification of Γ\H. Once again, a complex structure can be put on the quotient Γ\H* turning it into a Riemann surface denoted X(Γ) which is now compact. This space is a compactification of Y(Γ).
Examples The most common examples are the curves X(N), X0(N), and X1(N) associated with the subgroups Γ(N), Γ0(N), and Γ1(N). The modular curve X(5) has genus 0: it is the Riemann sphere with 12 cusps located at the vertices of a regular icosahedron. The covering X(5) → X(1) is realized by the action of the icosahedral group on the Riemann sphere. This group is a simple group of order 60 isomorphic to A5 and PSL(2, 5). The modular curve X(7) is the Klein quartic of genus 3 with 24 cusps. It can be interpreted as a surface with three handles tiled by 24 heptagons, with a cusp at the center of each face. These tilings can be understood via dessins d'enfants and Belyi functions – the cusps are the points lying over ∞ (red dots), while the vertices and centers of the edges (black and white dots) are the points lying over 0 and 1. The Galois group of the covering X(7) → X(1) is a simple group of order 168 isomorphic to PSL(2, 7). There is an explicit classical model for X0(N), the classical modular curve; this is sometimes called the modular curve. The definition of Γ(N) can be restated as follows: it is the subgroup of the modular group which is the kernel of the reduction modulo N. Then Γ0(N) is the larger subgroup of matrices which are upper triangular modulo N:
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