In various Asian religious traditions, the Nāgas (Sanskrit: नाग, romanized: Nāga) are a divine, or semi-divine, race of half-human, half-serpent beings that reside in the netherworld (Patala), and can occasionally take human or part-human form, or are so depicted in art. Furthermore, nāgas are also known as dragons and water spirits. A female nāga is called a Nagini (Hindi: नागिन nāgin). According to legend, they are the children of the sage Kashyapa and Kadru. Rituals devoted to these supernatural beings have been taking place throughout South Asia for at least 2,000 years. They are principally depicted in three forms: as entirely human with snakes on the heads and necks, as common serpents, or as half-human, half-snake beings in Hinduism and Buddhism. Nagaraja is the title given to the king of the nāgas. Narratives of these beings hold cultural significance in the mythological traditions of many South Asian and Southeast Asian cultures, and within Hinduism and Buddhism. Communities such as the Nagavamshi, Khmer and Sri Lankan Tamils claim descent from this race.
Etymology In Sanskrit, a nāga (नाग) primarily refers to a snake, most often specifically the Indian cobra (Naja naja). However, the term is also used generically to denote any snake, sharing this broader meaning with other common Sanskrit synonyms such as sarpa (सर्प) and phaṇin (फणिन्). Etymologically, the word is believed to be a cognate with the English word "snake", tracing back to the Germanic *snēk-a- and the Proto-Indo-European (PIE) root *(s)nēg-o- (featuring an s-mobile). An alternative Indo-European etymology suggests a connection to the concept of a "hairless, naked animal"—making it a cognate with the English word "naked". This root could explain why the Sanskrit word nāga is polysemous and can also translate to "cloud", "mountain", or "elephant" in certain contexts.
Hinduism
Nāgas, as a serpent-shaped group of deities that often take form as cobras, are prominent in Hindu iconography, throughout Hindu texts (especially in the first book of the Mahābhārata) and in local folk traditions of worship. In some regions of the Himalaya, nāgas are regarded as the divine rulers of the region — for example, in Kullu Valley, in Berinag and in the valley of the Pindar River, which is believed to be ruled by the ninefold Naiṇī Devī. Both in the Nilamata Purana of Kashmir and in the Swayambhu Purana of Kathmandu, the respective region begins its history as a lake, populated by nāgas, which is later drained. Ancient Sanskrit texts such as the Mahabharata, the Ramayana, and the Puranas describe the nāgas as a powerful, splendid and proud semi-divine species that can assume their physical form either as human (often with a halo of cobra hoods behind their head), as a partially human serpent, or as a whole serpent. Their domain is in the enchanted underworld, the underground realm filled with gems, gold and other earthly treasures called Naga-loka or Patala-loka. They are also often associated with bodies of waters—including rivers, lakes, seas, and wells—and are guardians of treasure. Their power and venom make them potentially dangerous to humans. However, in Hindu mythology, they often take the role of benevolent protagonists: in the Samudra Manthana, Vasuki, a nagaraja who abides on Shiva's neck, became the churning rope for churning of the Ocean of Milk. Their eternal archrival is the Garuḍa, the legendary semi-divine bird-like deity.
Vishnu is originally portrayed in the form sheltered by Sheshanāga or reclining on Shesha, but the iconography has been extended to other deities as well. The serpent is a common feature in Ganesha iconography, and appears in many forms: around the neck, use as a sacred thread (Sanskrit: yajñopavīta) wrapped around the stomach as a belt, held in a hand, coiled at the ankles, or as a throne. Shiva is often shown garlanded with a snake. Maehle (2006: p. 297) states that "Patanjali is thought to be a manifestation of the serpent of eternity".
Folk traditions In South India, termite hills are believed to be the dwelling place of female nagammas, whereas Himalayan Nags and Naginis, such as Naiṇī Devī of Pindar Valley, are worshipped as underworld beings protecting water resources and the wellbeing of village and valley.
Literature
The Mahabharata epic is the first text that introduces nāgas; it describes them in detail and narrates their stories. The cosmic snake Shesha, the nagarajas (nāga kings) Vasuki, Takshaka, Airavata and Karkotaka, and the princess Ulupi, are all depicted in the Mahabharata. The Brahma Purana describes the reign of Adishesha as the king of the serpents in Patala:
During the night the light of the moon is not utilised for its coolness but only for illumination. Since that passes away is not taken notice of by the nāgas who enjoy with gaiety the foodstuffs and the edibles they consume and the great beverages they drink. Nor are Danujas and others aware of it. O brahmins, the forests, rivers, lakes, and lotus ponds, the cooing of the cuckoo and other sweet birds, the pleasing skies, the unguents and the continuous notes and sounds of musical instruments such as the lute, flute and Mṛdaṅga drums, O brahmins—all these and other beautiful things are enjoyed by virtue of their good luck by Dānavas, Daityas and Nāgas residing in Pātāla. The Tāmasī form of Viṣṇu, named Śeṣa is beneath the lower regions.
Daityas and Dānavas are not capable of recounting his good qualities. He is honoured by Devas and celestial sages. He is spoken of as Ananta. He has a thousand hoods and he is clearly bedecked in Svastika ornaments devoid of impurities. He illuminates all quarters by thousand jewels on his hoods. The Kamba Ramayana describes the role of Vasuki in the Samudra Manthana:
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