Open source

Open source is the practice of publishing digital resources publicly alongside their source code or source files, enabling use, study, modification, and redistribution. It is historically and commonly associated with open-source software, software released with its source code. The concept has also been applied beyond software to other digital resources made available alongside their source files or design documents, such as open-source hardware, open-source educational resources or open-source fonts. The rights to reuse this type of digital resources are guaranteed through a specific legal framework, whether with open licenses or public domain dedication. The development of open source resources can be based on open collaboration, a decentralized and peer-to-peer model of production. Open source resources are a shared component across openness movements — such as open-source software, open hardware, open education or open music — with each domain having distinct types of source files and distribution formats to manage. While the sharing of source code is an established practice with software, open resources in other fields may not systematically provide their source files, restricting the ability to modify these digital resources despite the rights granted to users. The term open source can also refer to publicly available sources of information, notably in intelligence field with open-source intelligence (OSINT). By analogy to such practices of public access and collaboration, the notion is also used more loosely across many domains.

Source files

Source files are the files containing the original, editable version of a digital resource from which a final format can be created – suitable for distribution and end use. Each type of digital resource has specific source file formats, compiled, rendered or compressed into a distribution format. Open licenses grant the right to modify a digital resource, but access to its source files is a necessary condition to effectively provide the ability to do so and enable future improvements.

In practice, open resources can regularly be provided only in their distribution format — a 2016 study of Thingiverse found that 84% of shared designs were in STL format, with source file formats being dramatically less common.

By default with the current copyright system around the world, new works are automatically protected on creation with all rights reserved to its author. Legal instruments have been developed across open practices to grant reuse, modification and distribution rights, including open licenses and public domain dedications, with distinct types emerging for each domain. While works in the public domain could represent the maximum degree of openness, open licenses can come with few or no restrictions forming a spectrum of openness from fully copyrighted to fully open works. Open licenses maintain the author's ownership while granting reuse rights through copyright law.

Different open licenses have been developed to address the specific legal and practical needs of different types of digital resources, as a license suitable for one domain may not be suitable for another. Creative Commons licenses are widely used for cultural work, including research articles, educational resources, and artistic works. In software, a common set of open licenses are those approved by the Open Source Initiative based on their Open Source Definition — it requires licenses to allow anyone to use the software for any purpose. For fonts, there is the SIL Open Font License which prohibits the standalone sale of font files; for hardware, there is the CERN Open Hardware Licence which extends coverage to patent rights alongside copyright; for data, there is the Open Database License which addresses specific database rights beyond copyright. These are illustrative examples of key licenses for each field; each domain encompasses a variety of open licenses offering different sets of rights and permissions. By being free of copyright restriction, dedication of works to the public domain may enable everyone to freely use and modify a resource, with rights that can be expired or waived. However, copyright is a complex system with varying laws across jurisdictions, a public domain dedication may even be impossible in some places — therefore a work can be in the public domain in one country but not in another. The moral rights may be inalienable, such as in France, with the author or their heirs who may object to modifications impacting the integrity of a public domain work. The licence Creative Commons CC0 Public Domain Dedication provides a means to consistently guarantee the same rights worldwide, with a license fallback. The system of open licenses like Creative Commons can be seen as problematic as private solutions relying on contract law, with a variety of actors calling for a copyright reform because commercial interests are seen to be protected at the expense of the public good. Creative Commons itself acknowledges that its licenses "are a patch, not a fix, for the problems of the copyright system".

Open collaboration

Type of open source resources

Software

Hardware

Artificial intelligence

Education In open education and by extension to open educational resources (OER), the notion of "open source educational resources" has been theorized to specify OER which provide their source files. In order to make meaningful edits to these educational resources it is necessary to access their source files, in accordance with the ALMS framework (Access to Editing Tools, Level of Expertise Required, Meaningfully Editable, Self-Sourced). It is common for Open Educational Resources such as open textbooks to be available only in a final format such as PDF, limiting the ability of users to modify them despite the rights provided by open licenses. UNESCO's Recommendation on OER explicitly calls for "developing mechanisms to support and incentivize all stakeholders to publish source files and accessible OER using standard open file formats in public repositories." Open-source book also extend this principle to books, where source files such as LaTeX or Markdown files are made publicly available alongside the final PDF.

Fonts

Open source fonts are typefaces made publicly available alongside their source files. Font editors store typefaces in source formats such as .glyphs, UFO, or VFC during development, and compile them into binary formats such as OTF, TTF, or WOFF for end use. The SIL Open Font License (OFL), created by SIL International in 2005, is a license specifically designed for open source fonts. Notable examples include DejaVu fonts and Source Sans.

Film

Music

Other meanings

Open-source intelligence

Analogous uses The term "open source" is also used more loosely by analogy to refer to public access of information and/or decentralized collaborative practices.

Open-source colas Open-source religion Open-source governance Open-source political campaigns Open-source journalism Open Source Seed Initiative Open-source unionism Open-source ethics, school of thought Open Source Drug Discovery Open Source Malaria Consortium Open-source genomics

Further reading

Benkler, Yochai (2006). The Wealth of Networks: How Social Production Transforms Markets and Freedom (PDF). Yale University Press. Berry, David M. (2008). Copy, Rip, Burn: The Politics of Copyleft and Open Source. London: Pluto Press. ISBN 978-0745324142. OCLC 298460562. OL 9409091M. Dunlap, Isaac Hunter (2006). Open Source Database Driven Web Development: A Guide for Information Professionals. Oxford: Chandos. ISBN 978-1-84334-161-1. OCLC 679959533. OL 8930417M. Archived from the original on 4 February 2020. Retrieved 9 July 2021. Fogel, Karl (14 August 2020). Producing Open Source Software: How to Run a Successful Free Software Project. CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform. ISBN 9781519343987. OCLC 609841129. OL 55306282M. Goldman, Ron; Gabriel, Richard P. (2005). Innovation Happens Elsewhere: Open Source as Business Strategy. Richard P. Gabriel. ISBN 978-1-55860-889-4. Kostakis, V.; Bauwens, M. (2014). Network Society and Future Scenarios for a Collaborative Economy. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-1-137-41506-6. (wiki) Nettingsmeier, Jörn. "So What? I Don't Hack!" eContact! 11.3 – Logiciels audio " open source " / Open Source for Audio Application (September 2009). Montréal: CEC. Ray, Partha Pratim; Rai, Rebika (2013). Open Source Hardware: An Introductory Approach. Lap Lambert Publishing House. ISBN 978-3-659-46591-8. Schrape, Jan-Felix (2019). "Open-source projects as incubators of innovation. From niche phenomenon to integral part of the industry". Convergence. 25 (3): 409–427. doi:10.1177/1354856517735795. ISSN 1354-8565. S2CID 149165772. Stallman, Richard M. Free Software Free Society: Selected essays of Richard M. Stallman. Archived from the original on 21 November 2010. Retrieved 9 July 2021. Various authors. eContact! 11.3 – Logiciels audio " open source " / Open Source for Audio Application (September 2009). Montréal: CEC. Various authors. "Open Source Travel Guide [wiki]". eContact! 11.3 – Logiciels audio " open source " / Open Source for Audio Application (September 2009). Montréal: CEC. Weber, Steve (2004). The Success of Open Source. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-01292-9.

Literature on legal and economic aspects Abramson, Bruce (2005). Digital Phoenix; Why the Information Economy Collapsed and How it Will Rise Again. MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-51196-4. Benkler, Y. (December 2002). "Coase's Penguin, or, Linux and The Nature of the Firm" (PDF). Yale Law Journal. 112 (3): 369–446. arXiv:cs/0109077. doi:10.2307/1562247. hdl:10535/2974. ISSN 0044-0094. JSTOR 1562247. S2CID 16684329. Berry, D.M.; Moss, G. (2008). "Libre Culture: Meditations on Free Culture" (PDF). Canada: Pygmalion Books. Bitzer, J.; Schröder, P.J.H. (2005). "The Impact of Entry and Competition by Open Source Software on Innovation Activity" (PDF). Industrial Organization. EconWPA. v. Engelhardt, S. (2008). "The Economic Properties of Software" (PDF). Jena Economic Research Papers. 2: 2008–045. v. Engelhardt, S. (2008): "Intellectual Property Rights and Ex-Post Transaction Costs: the Case of Open and Closed Source Software", Jena Economic Research Papers 2008-047. (PDF) v. Engelhardt, S.; Swaminathan, S. (2008). "Open Source Software, Closed Source Software or Both: Impacts on Industry Growth and the Role of Intellectual Property Rights" (PDF). Discussion Papers of Diw Berlin. European Commission. (2006). Economic impact of open source software on innovation and the competitiveness of the Information and Communication Technologies sector in the EU. Brussels. v. Hippel, E.; v. Krogh, G. (2003). "Open source software and the "private-collective" innovation model: Issues for organization science" (PDF). Organization Science. 14 (2): 209–223. doi:10.1287/orsc.14.2.209.14992. hdl:1721.1/66145. ISSN 1047-7039. S2CID 11947692. Kostakis, V.; Bauwens, M. (2014). Network Society and Future Scenarios for a Collaborative Economy. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-1-137-41506-6. (wiki) Lerner, Josh; Pathak, Parag A.; Tirole, Jean (2006). "The Dynamics of Open Source Contributors". American Economic Review. 96 (2): 114–8. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.510.9948. doi:10.1257/000282806777211874. ISSN 0002-8282. Archived from the original on 4 January 2012. Retrieved 9 July 2021. {{cite journal}}: Cite uses deprecated parameter |citeseerx= (help) Lerner, Josh; Tirole, Jean (2002). "Some simple economics on open source". Journal of Industrial Economics. 50 (2): 197–234. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.461.3373. doi:10.1111/1467-6451.00174. ISSN 0022-1821. S2CID 219722756. {{cite journal}}: Cite uses deprecated parameter |citeseerx= (help) earlier revision (PDF) Lerner, J.; Tirole, J. (2005). "The Scope of Open Source Licensing". The Journal of Law, Economics, and Organization. 21: 20–56. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.72.465. doi:10.1093/jleo/ewi002. ISSN 8756-6222. {{cite journal}}: Cite uses deprecated parameter |citeseerx= (help) Lerner, J.; Tirole, J. (2005). "The Economics of Technology Sharing: Open Source and Beyond" (PDF). Journal of Economic Perspectives. 19 (2): 99–120. doi:10.1257/0895330054048678. ISSN 0895-3309. S2CID 17968894. Maurer, S.M. (2008). "Open source biology: Finding a niche (or maybe several)". UMKC Law Review. 76 (2). doi:10.2139/ssrn.1114371. ISSN 1556-5068. S2CID 54046895. SSRN 1114371. Osterloh, M.; Rota, S. (2007). "Open source software development — Just another case of collective invention?" (PDF). Research Policy. 36 (2): 157–171. doi:10.1016/j.respol.2006.10.004. hdl:10419/214322. ISSN 0048-7333. Riehle, D. (April 2007). "The Economic Motivation of Open Source: Stakeholder Perspectives". IEEE Computer. 40 (4): 25–32. doi:10.1109/MC.2007.147. ISSN 0018-9162. S2CID 168544. Rossi, M.A. (2006). "Decoding the free/open source software puzzle: A survey of theoretical and empirical contributions" (PDF). In Bitzer, J.; Schröder, P. (eds.). The Economics of Open Source Software Development. Elsevier. pp. 15–55. ISBN 978-0-444-52769-1. Sampathkumar, K.S. Understanding FOSS Version 4.0 revised. ISBN 978-8-184-65469-1. Schiff, A. (2002). "The Economics of Open Source Software: A Survey of the Early Literature" (PDF). Review of Network Economics. 1 (1): 66–74. doi:10.2202/1446-9022.1004. ISSN 2194-5993. S2CID 201280221. Archived from the original on 7 May 2003. Schwarz, M.; Takhteyev, Y. (2010). "Half a Century of Public Software Institutions: Open Source as a Solution to the Hold-Up Problem". Journal of Public Economic Theory. 12 (4): 609–639. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.625.2368. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9779.2010.01467.x. ISSN 1097-3923. S2CID 154317482. {{cite journal}}: Cite uses deprecated parameter |citeseerx= (help) earlier revision Spagnoletti, P.; Federici, T. (2011). "Exploring the Interplay Between FLOSS Adoption and Organizational Innovation". Communications of the Association for Information Systems. 29 (15): 279–298. doi:10.17705/1CAIS.02915.

Tags