The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to biology: Biology – The natural science that studies life. Areas of focus include structure, function, growth, origin, evolution, distribution, and taxonomy.
History of biology
History of anatomy History of biochemistry History of biotechnology History of botany History of ecology History of genetics History of evolutionary thought: Darwinism Eclipse of Darwinism (Lamarckism, Orthogenesis, Structuralism, and Mutationism) Modern (evolutionary) synthesis History of molecular evolution History of speciation History of marine biology History of medicine History of model organisms History of molecular biology Natural history History of neuroscience History of plant systematics History of pathology History of virology History of zoology
Overview Biology Science Life Properties: Adaptation – Energy processing – Growth – Order – Regulation – Reproduction – Response to environment Biological organization: atom – molecule – cell – tissue – organ – organ system – organism – population – community – ecosystem – biosphere Approach: Reductionism – emergent property – mechanistic Biology as a science: Natural science Scientific method: observation – research question – hypothesis – testability – prediction – experiment – data – statistics Scientific theory – scientific law Research method List of research methods in biology Scientific literature List of biology journals: peer review
Chemical basis Outline of biochemistry
Atoms and molecules matter – element – atom – proton – neutron – electron– Bohr model – isotope – chemical bond – ionic bond – ions – covalent bond – hydrogen bond – molecule Water: properties of water – solvent – cohesion – adhesion – surface tension – pH Organic compounds: carbon – carbon-carbon bonds – hydrocarbon – monosaccharide – amino acids – nucleotide – functional group – monomer – adenosine triphosphate (ATP) – lipids – oil – sugar – vitamins – neurotransmitter – wax Macromolecules: polysaccharide: cellulose – carbohydrate – chitin – glycogen – starch proteins: primary structure – secondary structure – tertiary structure – conformation – native state – protein folding – enzyme – receptor – transmembrane receptor – ion channel – membrane transporter – collagen – pigments: chlorophyll – carotenoid – xanthophyll – melanin – prion lipids: cell membrane – fats – phospholipids nucleic acids: DNA – RNA
Cells Outline of cell biology
Cell structure: Cell coined by Robert Hooke Techniques: cell culture – flow cytometry – microscope – light microscope – electron microscopy – SEM – TEM – live cell imaging Organelles: Cytoplasm – Vacuole – Peroxisome – Plastid Cell nucleus Nucleoplasm – Nucleolus – Chromatin – Chromosome Endomembrane system Nuclear envelope – Endoplasmic reticulum – Golgi apparatus – Vesicles – Lysosome Energy creators: Mitochondrion and Chloroplast Biological membranes: Plasma membrane – Mitochondrial membrane – Chloroplast membrane Other subcellular features: Cell wall – pseudopod – cytoskeleton – mitotic spindle – flagellum – cilium Cell transport: Diffusion – Osmosis – isotonic – active transport – phagocytosis Cellular reproduction: cytokinesis – centromere – meiosis Nuclear reproduction: mitosis – interphase – prophase – metaphase – anaphase – telophase programmed cell death – apoptosis – cell senescence Metabolism: enzyme - activation energy - proteolysis – cooperativity Cellular respiration Glycolysis – Pyruvate dehydrogenase complex – Citric acid cycle – electron transport chain – fermentation Photosynthesis light-dependent reactions – Calvin cycle Cell cycle mitosis – chromosome – haploid – diploid – polyploidy – prophase – metaphase – anaphase – telophase – cytokinesis – meiosis
Genetics Outline of Genetics
Inheritance heredity – Mendelian inheritance – gene – locus – trait – allele – polymorphism – homozygote – heterozygote – hybrid – hybridization – dihybrid cross – Punnett square – inbreeding genotype–phenotype distinction – genotype – phenotype – dominant gene – recessive gene genetic interactions – Mendel's law of segregation – genetic mosaic – maternal effect – penetrance – complementation – suppression – epistasis – genetic linkage Model organisms: Drosophila – Arabidopsis – Caenorhabditis elegans – mouse – Saccharomyces cerevisiae – Escherichia coli – Lambda phage – Xenopus – chicken – zebrafish – Ciona intestinalis – amphioxus Techniques: genetic screen – linkage map – genetic map DNA Nucleic acid double helix Nucleobase: adenine (A) – cytosine (C) – guanine (G) – thymine (T) – uracil (U) DNA replication – mutation – mutation rate – proofreading – DNA mismatch repair – point mutation – crossover – recombination – plasmid – transposon Gene expression Central dogma of molecular biology: nucleosome – genetic code – codon – transcription factor – transcription – translation – RNA – histone – telomere heterochromatin – promoter – RNA polymerase Protein biosynthesis – ribosomes Gene regulation operon – activator – repressor – corepressor – enhancer – alternative splicing Genomes DNA sequencing – high throughput sequencing – bioinformatics Proteome – proteomics – metabolome – metabolomics DNA paternity testing Biotechnology (see also Outline of biochemical techniques and Molecular biology): DNA fingerprinting – genetic fingerprint – microsatellite – gene knockout – imprinting – RNA interference Genomics – computational biology – bioinformatics – gel electrophoresis – transformation – PCR – PCR mutagenesis – primer – chromosome walking – RFLP – restriction enzyme – sequencing – shotgun sequencing – cloning – culture – DNA microarray – electrophoresis – protein tag – affinity chromatography – x-ray diffraction – proteomics – mass spectrometry – CRISPR – gene therapy Genes, development, and evolution Apoptosis French flag model Pattern formation Evo-devo gene toolkit Transcription factor
Evolution Outline of evolution (see also evolutionary biology)
Evolutionary processes evolution microevolution: adaptation – selection – natural selection – directional selection – sexual selection – genetic drift – sexual reproduction – asexual reproduction – colony – allele frequency – neutral theory of molecular evolution – population genetics – Hardy–Weinberg principle Speciation Species Phylogeny Lineage (evolution) – evolutionary tree – cladistics – species – taxon – clade – monophyletic – polyphyly – paraphyly – heredity – phenotypic trait – nucleic acid sequence – synapomorphy – homology – molecular clock – outgroup (cladistics) – maximum parsimony (phylogenetics) – Computational phylogenetics Linnaean taxonomy: Carl Linnaeus – domain (biology) – kingdom (biology) – phylum – class (biology) – order (biology) – family (biology) – genus – species Three-domain system: archaea – bacteria – eukaryote – protist – fungi – plant – animal Binomial nomenclature: scientific classification – Homo sapiens History of life Origin of life – hierarchy of life – Miller–Urey experiment Macroevolution: adaptive radiation – convergent evolution – extinction – mass extinction – fossil – taphonomy – geologic time – plate tectonics – continental drift – vicariance – Gondwana – Pangaea – endosymbiosis
Life
Bacteria and Archaea Protists Plant diversity Green algae Chlorophyta Charophyta Bryophytes Marchantiophyta Anthocerotophyta Moss Pteridophytes Lycopodiophyta Polypodiophyta Seed plants Cycadophyta Ginkgophyta Pinophyta Gnetophyta Magnoliophyta Fungi Yeast – mold (fungus) – mushroom Animal diversity Invertebrates: sponge – cnidarian – coral – jellyfish – Hydra (genus) – sea anemone flatworms – nematodes arthropods: crustacean – chelicerata – myriapoda – arachnids – insects – annelids – molluscs Vertebrates: fishes: – agnatha – chondrichthyes – osteichthyes Tiktaalik tetrapods amphibians reptiles birds flightless birds – Neognathae – dinosaurs mammals placental: primates marsupial monotreme Viruses DNA viruses – RNA viruses – retroviruses
Plant form and function
Plant body Organ systems: root – shoot – stem – leaf – flower Plant nutrition and transport Vascular tissue – bark (botany) – Casparian strip – turgor pressure – xylem – phloem – transpiration – wood – trunk (botany) Plant development tropism – taxis seed – cotyledon – meristem – apical meristem – vascular cambium – cork cambium alternation of generations – gametophyte – antheridium – archegonium – sporophyte – spore – sporangium Plant reproduction angiosperms – flower – reproduction – sperm – pollination – self-pollination – cross-pollination – nectar – pollen Plant responses Plant hormone – ripening – fruit – Ethylene as a plant hormone – toxin – pollinator – phototropism – skototropism – phototropin – phytochrome – auxin – photoperiodism – gravity
Animal form and function
General features: morphology (biology) – anatomy – physiology – biological tissues – organ (biology) – organ systems Water and salt balance Body fluids: osmotic pressure – ionic composition – volume Diffusion – osmosis) – Tonicity – sodium – potassium – calcium – chloride Excretion Nutrition and digestion Digestive system: stomach – intestine – liver – nutrition – primary nutritional groups metabolism – kidney – excretion Breathing Respiratory system: lungs Circulation Circulatory system: heart – artery – vein – capillary – Blood – blood cell Lymphatic system: lymph node Muscle and movement Skeletal system: bone – cartilage – joint – tendon Muscular system: muscle – actin – myosin – reflex Nervous system Neuron – dendrite – axon – nerve – electrochemical gradient – electrophysiology – action potential – signal transduction – synapse – receptor – Central nervous system: brain – spinal cord limbic system – memory – vestibular system Peripheral nervous system Sensory nervous system: eye – vision – audition – proprioception – olfaction – Integumentary system: skin cell Hormonal control Endocrine system: hormone
Animal reproduction Reproductive system: testes – ovary – pregnancy Fish#Reproductive system Mammalian reproductive system Human reproductive system Mammalian penis Os penis Penile spines Genitalia of bottlenose dolphins Genitalia of marsupials Equine reproductive system Even-toed ungulate#Genitourinary system Bull#Reproductive anatomy Carnivora#Reproductive system Fossa (animal)#External genitalia Female genitalia of spotted hyenas Cat anatomy#Genitalia Genitalia of dogs Canine penis Bulbus glandis Animal development stem cell – blastula – gastrula – egg (biology) – fetus – placenta - gamete – spermatid – ovum – zygote – embryo – cellular differentiation – morphogenesis – homeobox Immune system antibody – host – vaccine – immune cell – AIDS – T cell – leucocyte Animal behavior Behavior: mating – animal communication – seek shelter – migration (ecology) Fixed action pattern Altruism (biology)
Ecology Outline of ecology
Ecosystems: Ecology – Biodiversity – habitat – plankton – thermocline – saprobe Abiotic component: water – light – radiation – temperature – humidity – atmosphere – acidity Microbe – biomass – organic matter – decomposer – decomposition – carbon – nutrient cycling – solar energy – topography – tilt – Windward and leeward – precipitation Temperature – biome Populations Population ecology: organism – geographical area – sexual reproduction – population density – population growth – birth rate – death Rate – immigration rate – exponential growth – carrying capacity – logistic function – natural environment – competition (biology) – mating – biological dispersal – endemic (ecology) – growth curve (biology) – habitat – drinking water – resource – human population – technology – Green revolution Communities Community (ecology) – ecological niche – keystone species – mimicry – symbiosis – pollination – mutualism – commensalism – parasitism – predation – invasive species – environmental heterogeneity – edge effect Consumer–resource interactions: food chain – food web – autotroph – heterotrophs – herbivore – carnivore – trophic level Biosphere lithosphere – atmosphere – hydrosphere biogeochemical cycle: nitrogen cycle – carbon cycle – water cycle Climate change: Fossil fuel – coal – oil – natural gas – World energy consumption – Climate change feedback – Albedo – water vapor Carbon sink Conservation Biodiversity – habitats – Ecosystem services – biodiversity loss – extinction – Sustainability – Holocene extinction – bioremediation
Branches
Anatomy – study of form in animals, plants and other organisms, or specifically in humans. Simply, the study of internal structure of living organisms. Physiology – study of the internal workings of organisms and the functions of anatomical structures. Comparative anatomy – the study of evolution of species through similarities and differences in their anatomy. Gross anatomy – study of anatomy at the macroscopic level Histology – also known as microscopic anatomy or microanatomy, the branch of biology which studies the microscopic anatomy of biological tissues. Neuroanatomy – the study of the nervous system. Osteology – study of bones. Radiographic anatomy – study of anatomy through radiography Surface anatomy – study of external features of a body Biochemistry – study of the chemical reactions required for life to exist and function, usually a focus on the cellular level. Biophysics – study of biological processes through the methods traditionally used in the physical sciences. Biomechanics – the study of the mechanics of living beings. Cellular biophysics – study of physical principles underlying cell function Neurophysics – study of the development of the nervous system on a molecular level. Molecular biophysics – study of physical properties of biomolecules at the molecular level Quantum biology – application of quantum mechanics and theoretical chemistry to biological objects and problems. Virophysics – study of mechanics and dynamics driving the interactions between virus and cells. Biotechnology – new and sometimes controversial branch of biology that studies the manipulation of living matter, including genetic modification and synthetic biology. Bioinformatics – use of information technology for the study, collection, and storage of genomic and other biological data. Bioengineering – study of biology through the means of engineering with an emphasis on applied knowledge and especially related to biotechnology. Synthetic biology – research integrating biology and engineering; construction of biological functions not found in nature. Botany – study of plants. Economic botany – study of relationship between people and plants, including the practical uses of plants Ethnobotany – study of a region's plants and their usage by people Photobiology – scientific study of the interactions of light (technically, non-ionizing radiation) and living organisms. The field includes the study of photosynthesis, photomorphogenesis, visual processing, circadian rhythms, bioluminescence, and ultraviolet radiation effects. Phycology – scientific study of algae. Plant anatomy – study of internal structure of plants Plant ecology – study of how plants interact with each other and their environment Plant genetics – study of heredity and variation in plants Plant pathology – study of plant diseases Plant physiology – subdiscipline of botany concerned with the functioning, or physiology, of plants. Cell biology – study of the cell as a complete unit, and the molecular and chemical interactions that occur within a living cell. Histology – study of the anatomy of cells and tissues of plants and animals using microscopy. Chronobiology – field of biology that examines periodic (cyclic) phenomena in living organisms and their adaptation to solar- and lunar-related rhythms. Dendrochronology – study of tree rings, using them to date the exact year they were formed in order to analyze atmospheric conditions during different periods in natural history. Developmental biology – study of the processes through which an organism forms, from zygote to full structure Embryology – study of the development of embryo (from fecundation to birth). Gerontology – study of aging processes. Ecology – study of the interactions of living organisms with one another and with the non-living elements of their environment. Behavioral ecology – the study of the evolutionary basis for animal behavior due to ecological pressure Ecosystem ecology – study of biotic and abiotic components of ecosystems and their interactions within an ecosystem Landscape ecology – study of relationships between ecological processes in the environment and particular ecosystems Microbial ecology – study of the relationships between microorganisms and their environments Population ecology – study of dynamics of species populations and how these populations interact with the environment Urban ecology – study of the relationships between living organisms with each other and their urban environment. Biogeography – study of the distribution of species spatially and temporally. Evolutionary biology – study of the origin and descent of species over time. Evolutionary developmental biology – field of biology that compares the developmental processes of different organisms to determine the ancestral relationship between them, and to discover how developmental processes evolved. Paleobiology – discipline which combines the methods and findings of the life sciences with the methods and findings of the earth science, paleontology. Paleoanthropology – the study of fossil evidence for human evolution, mainly using remains from extinct hominin and other primate species to determine the morphological and behavioral changes in the human lineage, as well as the environment in which human evolution occurred. Paleobotany – study of fossil plants. Paleontology – study of fossils and sometimes geographic evidence of prehistoric life. Paleopathology – the study of pathogenic conditions observable in bones or mummified soft tissue, and on nutritional disorders, variation in stature or morphology of bones over time, evidence of physical trauma, or evidence of occupationally derived biomechanic stress. Genetics – study of genes and heredity. Molecular genetics – study of the bimolecular mechanisms behind the structure and function of DNA Quantitative genetics – study of phenotypes that vary continuously (in characters such as height or mass)—as opposed to discretely identifiable phenotypes and gene-products (such as eye-colour, or the presence of a particular biochemical). Marine biology – study of ocean ecosystems, plants, animals, and other living beings. Microbiology – study of microscopic organisms (microorganisms) and their interactions with other living things. Bacteriology – study of bacteria Immunology – study of immune systems in all organisms. Mycology – study of fungi Parasitology – study of parasites and parasitism. Virology – study of viruses Biochemistry Molecular biology – study of biology and biological functions at the molecular level, with some cross over from biochemistry. Structural biology – a branch of molecular biology, biochemistry, and biophysics concerned with the molecular structure of biological macromolecules. Health sciences and human biology – biology of humans. Medicine – Diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of illness. Endocrinology – study of the endocrine system. Oncology – study of cancer processes, including virus or mutation, oncogenesis, angiogenesis, and tissues remoldings. Pharmacology – study of medication and drugs Epidemiology – major component of public health research, studying factors affecting the health of populations. Neuroscience – study of the nervous system, including anatomy, physiology and emergent proprieties. Behavioral neuroscience – study of physiological, genetic, and developmental mechanisms of behavior in humans and other animals. Cellular neuroscience – study of neurons at a cellular level. Cognitive neuroscience – study of biological substrates underlying cognition, with a focus on the neural substrates of mental processes. Computational neuroscience – study of the information processing functions of the nervous system, and the use of digital computers to study the nervous system. Developmental neuroscience – study of the cellular basis of brain development and addresses the underlying mechanisms. Molecular neuroscience – studies the biology of the nervous system with molecular biology, molecular genetics, protein chemistry and related methodologies. Neuroanatomy – study of the anatomy of nervous tissue and neural structures of the nervous system. Neuroendocrinology – studies the interaction between the nervous system and the endocrine system, that is how the brain regulates the hormonal activity in the body. Neuroethology – study of animal behavior and its underlying mechanistic control by the nervous system. Neuroimmunology – study of the nervous system, and immunology, the study of the immune system. Neuropharmacology – study of how drugs affect cellular function in the nervous system. Neurophysiology – study of the function (as opposed to structure) of the nervous system. Systems neuroscience – studies the function of neural circuits and systems. Theoretical biology – the mathematical modeling of biological phenomena. Systems biology – computational modeling of biological systems. Zoology – study of animals, including classification, physiology, development, and behavior. Subbranches include: Arthropodology – biological discipline concerned with the study of arthropods, a phylum of animals that include the insects, arachnids, crustaceans and others that are characterized by the possession of jointed limbs. Acarology – study of the taxon of arachnids that contains mites and ticks. Arachnology – scientific study of spiders and related animals such as scorpions, pseudoscorpions, harvestmen, collectively called arachnids. Entomology – study of insects. Coleopterology – study of beetles. Lepidopterology – study of a large order of insects that includes moths and butterflies (called lepidopterans). Myrmecology – scientific study of ants. Carcinology – study of crustaceans. Myriapodology – study of centipedes, millipedes, and other myriapods. Ethology – scientific study of animal behavior, usually with a focus on behavior under natural conditions. Helminthology – study of worms, especially parasitic worms. Herpetology – study of amphibians (including frogs, toads, salamanders, newts, and gymnophiona) and reptiles (including snakes, lizards, amphisbaenids, turtles, terrapins, tortoises, crocodilians, and the tuataras). Batrachology – subdiscipline of herpetology concerned with the study of amphibians alone. Ichthyology – study of fishes. This includes bony fishes (Osteichthyes), cartilaginous fishes (Chondrichthyes), and jawless fishes (Agnatha). Malacology – branch of invertebrate zoology which deals with the study of the Mollusca (mollusks or molluscs), the second-largest phylum of animals in terms of described species after the arthropods. Teuthology – branch of Malacology which deals with the study of cephalopods. Mammalogy – study of mammals, a class of vertebrates with characteristics such as homeothermic metabolism, fur, four-chambered hearts, and complex nervous systems. Mammalogy has also been known as "mastology," "theriology," and "therology." There are about 4,200 different species of animals which are considered mammals. Cetology – branch of marine mammal science that studies the approximately eighty species of whales, dolphins, and porpoise in the scientific order Cetacea. Primatology – scientific study of primates Human biology – interdisciplinary field studying the range of humans and human populations via biology/life sciences, anthropology/social sciences, applied/medical sciences Biological anthropology – subfield of anthropology that studies the physical morphology, genetics and behavior of the human genus, other hominins and hominids across their evolutionary development Human behavioral ecology – the study of behavioral adaptations (foraging, reproduction, ontogeny) from the evolutionary and ecologic perspectives (see behavioral ecology). It focuses on human adaptive responses (physiological, developmental, genetic) to environmental stresses. Nematology – scientific discipline concerned with the study of nematodes, or roundworms. Ornithology – scientific study of birds. Interdisciplinary fields Astrobiology – study of potential life outside of Earth. Bioarchaeology – study of human and animal remains from archaeological sites. Comparative biology – study of patterns and natural variation in species through similarities and differences at all levels, from genes to communities. Geobiology – study of the interactions between the physical Earth and the biosphere. Biolinguistics – biological study of language. Biological anthropology – study of the development of the human species.
Biologists
Lists of notable biologists List of notable biologists List of Nobel Prize winners in physiology or medicine Lists of biologists by author abbreviation List of authors of names published under the ICZN Lists of biologists by subject
List of biochemists List of ecologists List of neuroscientists List of physiologists
See also
Bibliography of biology Earliest known life forms Invasion biology terminology List of omics topics in biology Related outlines
Outline of life forms Outline of zoology Outline of engineering Outline of technology List of social sciences Journals
Biology journals
References
External links
OSU's Phylocode The Tree of Life: A multi-authored, distributed Internet project containing information about phylogeny and biodiversity. MIT video lecture series on biology A wiki site for protocol sharing run from MIT. Biology and Bioethics. Biology online wiki dictionary. Biology Video Sharing Community. What is Biotechnology Archived 19 April 2012 at the Wayback Machine : a voluntary program as Biotech for Beginners.