Persian astrology, particularly during the Sasanian era and earlier, is considered one of the most important connecting links in the history of global astronomy and astrology. This scientific school was a combination of Babylonian, Indian, and Greek knowledge that developed within the context of Iranian culture. The Sasanian Empire, by establishing scientific centers such as the Academy of Gondishapur, became a hub for the translation and compilation of astronomical and astrological texts. Important texts from Sanskrit and Greek were translated into Middle Persian (Pahlavi). Sasanian astrologers played a fundamental role in developing concepts such as continuous historical astrology and the great conjunction cycles of Jupiter (Ohrmazd) and Saturn (Kewan), which were used to predict major political events and the fates of kingdoms. Many astrological concepts found in specialized texts today have their roots in Middle Persian and found their way into Latin through Arabic translations, including: In examining the history of astrology in Iran and the Islamic era, scholars divide this development into three prominent periods:
Sasanian period: During this timeframe, Greek texts were translated into Middle Persian. Figures such as Andarzgar played a key role in this process, and his writings later served as the foundation for astrologers in the Islamic era. Transition of power to the Abbasids: With the rising prominence of Khorasan and the founding of Baghdad, Persian astrologers gained significant political and military influence. Figures such as Mashallah, Abu Ma'shar, and Sahl ibn Bishr served as close advisors to rulers in crucial decision-making and battles. Fundamental achievements: During this era, two major branches were established. The first was "Horary astrology", which was used to find answers to everyday questions by casting a horoscope at that exact moment. The second was "Mundane astrology", in which various national and historical epochs were divided and forecasted based on great conjunctions (the conjunctions of Jupiter and Saturn) and the time of the sun's entry into Aries.
Ancient Persia Astrology was incorporated into the religious and theological framework of Zoroastrianism particularly during the Sasanian period. According to Enrico G. Raffaelli, Zoroastrian priests probably possessed some knowledge of Mesopotamian astral divination and proto-astrology as early as the Achaemenid period, although there is insufficient evidence to determine whether these traditions influenced Zoroastrian theology before Sasanian times. Under the Sasanians, however, astrological doctrines entered the religious corpus itself. The Denkard, for example, presents Shapur I as recovering scientific and astral writings dispersed in India, Byzantium, and other lands. Although Raffaelli does not regard this account as strictly historical, it reflects a broader process through which astrological doctrines of Mesopotamian, Greek, and Indian origin were absorbed into Sasanian intellectual culture and adapted to Zoroastrian thought. In this Zoroastrian reinterpretation, the celestial realm forms part of the cosmic struggle between good and evil. The Sun, Moon, stars, and zodiacal constellations are classified as beneficial entities, whereas the five planets and the lunar nodes belong to the evil astral forces; the irregular motion of the planets is among the features associated with their negative character. The richest account of these doctrines occurs in the Bundahishn, particularly in its fifth section. The text describes a “horoscope of the world” for the beginning of the period of cosmic mixture, in which several malefic astral bodies occupy positions of exceptional power. The configuration thus represents the initial predominance of evil and helps explain the imperfect and polluted condition of the present world. Although ultimately derived from classical astrology, this world horoscope was substantially reworked in the Zoroastrian tradition, with Raffaelli identifying elements derived from Indian astrological models. Astrological concepts were also applied to human life and cosmic history. The horoscope of Gayomart, the primordial man, is the only individual birth chart known from Pahlavi literature, and his death at the age of thirty is explained astrologically through the changing positions and strengths of Saturn and Jupiter. The doctrine thereby makes death, regarded in Zoroastrian theology as one of the principal consequences of the assault of evil, part of an astrological scheme. Pahlavi texts also preserve doctrines of millennial chronocratoria, in which zodiacal constellations and especially Saturn exercise rulership over periods of cosmic history, anticipating themes associated with Sasanian historical astrology. In addition, the Anthologies of Zadspram contain a form of astrological melothesia connecting layers and parts of the human body—including marrow, bones, flesh, nerves, veins, skin, and hair—with celestial entities. Raffaelli interprets such doctrines as examples of the creative adaptation of astrological ideas of diverse origins to Zoroastrian cosmology and theology. One of the distinctive features of the Bundahishn is its combination of traditional Zoroastrian cosmology with later astronomical and astrological learning. D. N. MacKenzie noted that this syncretism is particularly evident in its astrological sections. Fixed stars form part of the celestial forces of Ohrmazd, whereas the wandering planets are portrayed as destructive beings that invade the heavens and contend with the fixed stars. The text assigns individual planetary adversaries to stellar commanders: Mercury is opposed to Sirius, Jupiter to the Great Bear, Mars to Vega, Venus to Sadwēs, and Saturn to the Pole Star, while the Dragon (Gōzihr) and the tailed Muš Parīg are associated with the Sun and Moon. The Bundahishn also contains what it explicitly calls the "horoscope of the world" (Middle Persian zāyč ī gēhān), representing the celestial configuration at the time of Ahriman's assault upon creation. Its ascendant is given as 19 degrees Cancer; Jupiter is placed in Cancer, Mercury in Virgo, Saturn in Libra, Mars in Capricorn, Venus in Pisces, the Sun in Aries, and the Moon in Taurus, while the Head and Tail of the Dragon occupy Gemini and Sagittarius respectively. MacKenzie's reconstruction of the diagram shows a twelve-house horoscope and demonstrates the extent to which technical astrology had been incorporated into the cosmological narrative of the Bundahishn. The same text displays familiarity with a substantial body of technical astrological doctrine. It states that each planet in relation to the twelve zodiacal signs possesses its own house, detriment, exaltation, fall, terms, aspects and decans, together with benefic and malefic conditions and other configurations. These passages indicate that the redactors of the Bundahishn had access to a developed system of Hellenistic astrology, although its concepts were reinterpreted within a specifically Zoroastrian cosmological and theological framework. Antonio Panaino has placed this material within the broader history of Iranian astral knowledge. He argues that the Avestan ritual texts contain no clear references to the five planets, whereas western Iranian communities, owing to their proximity to Mesopotamia, acquired a more developed knowledge of the wandering planets during the first millennium BCE. Four of the planets became associated with major Iranian deities: Jupiter with Ohrmazd, Mars with Wahrām, Venus with Anāhīd, and Mercury with Tīr. Saturn was exceptional, its Iranian name Kēwān being connected instead with a Mesopotamian designation expressing the idea of permanence or steadiness. According to Panaino, the Zoroastrian demonization of the planets should not simply be derived from Manichaean influence. Rather, it developed through a reformulation of the Zoroastrian concept of the cosmic battle between the forces of Ohrmazd and Ahriman. Fixed stars were regarded as orderly divine protectors of the heavens, whereas the planets, with their apparently irregular motions, stations and retrogradations, could be interpreted as agents of disorder. Their astronomical behaviour thus acquired a moral and theological meaning within the Zoroastrian cosmological system. Panaino considers it more likely that this process began during the Seleucid and early Parthian periods, when Hellenistic astrology was becoming established in Iranian lands, rather than being a specifically Sasanian borrowing from Manichaeism. This theological classification also created a tension with practical astrology. In conventional astrology Jupiter and Venus were benefic, Saturn and Mars malefic, while Mercury could assume either quality according to its configurations. Zoroastrian dualism, however, made such internal differentiation problematic: celestial beings were expected to belong either to the forces of order or to those of disorder. Consequently, the wandering planets as a class were assigned to the demonic side of the cosmic conflict, even though practical astrological doctrine continued to distinguish between benefic and malefic planets.
Characteristics Persian astrology may be understood as a group of astrological traditions that developed within the Iranian cultural sphere, particularly during the Sasanian period and the early Islamic centuries. These traditions combined Iranian material with elements derived from Babylonian, Greek, and Indian astronomy and astrology, some of which were subsequently transmitted through Arabic-language scholarship to other parts of the Islamic world and medieval Europe. Iranian astrologer and researcher Ehsan Khazeni describes Persian astrology as an extensive tradition with approximately fifteen centuries of historical continuity and associates it with the wider cultural geography of Greater Iran. Astronomy, mathematical geography, and astrology were historically important disciplines within this region. Before the International Meridian Conference of 1884, however, there was no single universally accepted prime meridian; different astronomical and geographical traditions used different reference meridians. The 1884 conference adopted the Greenwich meridian as the international reference meridian. In the Persian astrology, considerable emphasis is placed on the calculation and quantitative assessment of planetary conditions. These include exaltation, fall, and other forms of planetary dignity and debility. Khazeni describes a system involving 157 conditions or factors used in evaluating planetary strength and weakness. Here, “quantitative” refers to the internal computational procedures of the astrological tradition rather than to empirical scientific validation of astrological prediction. Persian astrology is also closely connected with other intellectual traditions, including Iranian mythology and cosmology as represented in the Bundahishn, Illuminationist and Peripatetic philosophy, Hermeticism, mathematical geography, calendrical studies, and spherical astronomy. Such connections have a long historical background: during the Sasanian period, Greek and Sanskrit astronomical and astrological works were translated into Middle Persian, and portions of this material were subsequently incorporated into astronomy and astrology of the Islamic period. Techniques and instrumentsو important within the Persian traditionو include the astrolabe, quantitative systems of planetary dignity and debility, time-lord techniques such as Firdaria, the interpretation of the great conjunctions of Saturn and Jupiter, the 28 lunar mansions, various forms of electional astrology, and the determination of the possible positions or candidates for the Hyleg. Horoscopic houses, lunar mansions, and related techniques are also attested in surviving Iranian and Islamic astrological texts. A substantial body of astronomical and astrological material is associated with scholars such as Al-Biruni, Abu Ma'shar al-Balkhi, members of the Naubakht family, and Nasir al-Din al-Tusi. Al-Biruni's own bibliography, for example, lists works devoted to astrology, astrological aspects and transits, astronomical instruments, and related subjects. The Iranian horoscopic tradition of the Sasanian period was also continued into the Islamic period by figures including Nawbakht and his descendants and Abu Ma'shar.
Concepts and technical factors
Gōzihr and the lunar nodes: The astrological term Gōzihr (Middle Persian: gōzihr), later borrowed into Arabic as jawzihr (جوزهر), has a pre-Islamic Iranian origin. The Middle Persian word developed from the Old Iranian compound adjective *gau-čiθra-, attested in the Avesta as gaočiθra-, an epithet of the Moon meaning approximately "bearing the seed" or "having the origin of cattle". In the Pahlavi translation of the Avesta, it was rendered as gōspand-tōxmag or gōspand-čihrag, indicating that the term had acquired a specialized astronomical and astrological meaning in the Middle Persian tradition. In Middle Persian astronomical tradition, Gōzihr came to designate an imaginary celestial dragon extending between the two lunar nodes. The ascending node, where the Moon crosses the ecliptic from south to north, constituted the "Head of Gōzihr" (gōzihr sar), while the descending node formed its "Tail" (gōzihr dumb). Because solar and lunar eclipses can occur only when the Sun and Moon are near the lunar nodes, Gōzihr also became closely associated with eclipses. A Manichaean Middle Persian text uses the expression "to don Gōzihr" for the eclipsing of the Sun and Moon. The concept also acquired a mythological dimension in Zoroastrian cosmology. The celestial dragon Gōzihr was associated with hostile cosmic forces, while the Milky Way was described in Middle Persian tradition as the "brilliance of Gōzihr" (brēh ī gōzihr). The identification of the lunar nodes with the head and tail of a celestial dragon was, however, part of a broader ancient Near Eastern and Asian astronomical tradition. MacKenzie traces the conception of the celestial Dragon to Chaldean astronomy, while the developed astrological treatment of the lunar nodes in Sasanian Iran also shows parallels with Indian astrology. The astrological importance of Gōzihr is particularly evident in the world horoscope (Middle Persian: zāyč ī gēhān) preserved in the Bundahishn. In this horoscope, which describes the configuration of the heavens at the beginning of material creation, the Head and Tail of Gōzihr are assigned specific positions in the zodiac alongside the seven traditional planets. The Tail of Gōzihr is placed in Sagittarius, while the Head is placed in Gemini. Their inclusion in the horoscope demonstrates that the lunar nodes were treated as significant astrological factors in the Middle Persian astral tradition. The world horoscope of the Bundahishn reflects the syncretic character of Sasanian astral science, in which Iranian traditions interacted with Hellenistic, Mesopotamian and Indian astronomy and astrology. The treatment of the lunar nodes is particularly comparable to the Indian astrological concepts of Rahu and Ketu, the ascending and descending lunar nodes respectively. After the Muslim conquest of Persia, the Middle Persian astronomical term passed into the scientific vocabulary of the Islamic world as Arabic jawzihr, with variants such as jawzahar and jawizahr. Muslim astronomers and astrologers used it primarily for the lunar nodes, although it could also designate the nodes of other planets. The ascending node was called raʾs al-jawzihr ("head of the jawzihr") and the descending node dhanab al-jawzihr ("tail of the jawzihr"); the lunar nodes were also known as the Head and Tail of the Dragon. Gōzihr thus represents an example of Iranian astronomical and astrological terminology transmitted from the Middle Persian tradition into medieval Islamic astronomy and astrology.
Hyleg: A word with Persian roots that was widely used in Sasanian astrology. It means "the fountain of life," and Persian astrologers also called it "Kadbanu". The hyleg represents the human body in a natal chart and is used to assess the quantity and quality of life. Kadkhodah: Composed of two parts, "kad" (house) and "khodah" (master). In astrology, it is the planet that has dignity in the position of the hyleg and represents the soul. A person's lifespan is calculated from the combination and blending of the hyleg and the kadkhodah. Jan-Bakhtar (Jan-Bakhshan): The distributor of the soul or the giver of life. The lord of the term (specific boundaries within the zodiac signs) to which the progression (tasyir) reaches is called "Qasim" in Arabic and "Jan-Bakhtar" in Persian. Firdaria is a traditional astrological time-lord technique in which a person's life is divided into successive periods, each assigned to one of the seven traditional planets and subsequently to the lunar nodes. The planet associated with each period is regarded as its time lord, and the quality of that period of life is interpreted according to the position and condition of the planet in the natal chart. Each major firdar is further divided into subperiods, each of which is also assigned a planetary lord. Firdaria is associated with the Persian astrological tradition, and its known form is particularly attested in works associated with the ninth-century Persian astrologer Abu Ma'shar al-Balkhi. The term firdār itself is Persian (فردار Fardār), and scholars have regarded the technique as having an Iranian background; the extensive transmission of astrological traditions from Sasanian Iran into Islamic astrology, including traditions used by Abu Ma'shar, is also well established. However, the surviving evidence is insufficient to demonstrate that the firdaria system, with precisely the same sequence and rules known from later Islamic sources, was already practiced in pre-Islamic Iran. It is therefore more accurate to describe firdaria as a technique of Iranian origin or background, probably connected with the Sasanian astrological tradition, whose documented and developed form is known from the Islamic period. Dustoria (دستوریه) is a condition in traditional astrology in which a planet is considered especially strong because of its position relative to the Sun or Moon and, in some systems, its placement in the chart. Medieval astrologers gave different definitions of dustoria, but generally treated it as a favorable condition that strengthened a planet’s influence. Persian degree-based profections are a form of profection in which chart points, particularly the ascendant, move continuously through the zodiac at a rate of 30 degrees per year, equivalent to 2°30′ per month. The earliest surviving source to describe this continuous form explicitly is the work of the eighth-century Persian astrologer Farrukhān Ṭabarī; the method was later treated extensively by Abu Ma'shar al-Balkhi. The lord of the year (Persian: sāl-khudā) is determined from the domicile ruler of the sign occupied by the profected ascendant at the solar return and retains that office throughout the year. The continuous degree-based motion is then used to time contacts with zodiacal bounds and the bodies or aspect points of planets in the nativity or revolution figure.
In the Shahnameh
Divination in the Persian national epic Shahnameh is not limited to astrology and appears in several forms. Studies of prophecy in the work, however, have noted that the interpretation of the positions and influences of celestial bodies occupies a distinctive place among its methods of foreknowledge. Astrologers are consulted to determine the fate of a newborn child, predict the future of a king, or ascertain the outcome of an event. In such episodes, celestial bodies are not merely objects of astronomical observation but are interpreted as signs from which information about earthly events and the future may be derived, a practice historically associated with judicial astrology. This conception appears from the mythological sections of the Shahnameh and continues into its more historical narratives. In the story of Zal and Rudaba, astrologers are consulted concerning the future and the consequences of their union. Similar examples occur elsewhere in the epic, and the presence of astrologers at royal courts indicates that, within the narrative world of the Shahnameh, interpreting the stars was regarded as an accepted means of foretelling future events. Some scholars have employed the concept of akhtarmāri (Persian: اخترماری) in examining older layers of these beliefs in the Shahnameh. From this perspective, some of the epic's astral elements may be understood not simply as literary devices introduced by Ferdowsi, but as survivals or reworkings of traditions and beliefs that entered the Shahnameh through the transmission of earlier Iranian narratives. The importance of the Shahnameh for the study of these traditions is also related to the formation of its sources. The core of many of its narratives ultimately derives from the tradition of the Khwaday-Namag and reached Ferdowsi particularly through the Abu Mansuri Shahnameh. The narrative material, however, was influenced by different sources and traditions during its transmission. Consequently, not every astral belief found in the Shahnameh can be attributed directly to pre-Islamic Iran without separate examination. The Shahnameh is therefore more useful as a source for studying the literary reflection and continuity of Iranian ideas concerning the stars, fortune, fate, and divination than as direct evidence for the actual practice of astrology in ancient Iran. In the sections concerning the Sasanian Empire, references to astronomical knowledge and astrological prediction sometimes become more technical, with terminology relating to astronomical calculations and the activities of astrologers appearing in the narrative. This is broadly consistent with the documented importance of astronomy and astrology in the intellectual culture of late antique Iran. Determining the origin of individual elements, however, requires comparison of the Shahnameh with Middle Persian texts, Islamic-period sources, and the history of the transmission of astronomical knowledge. Within the worldview reflected in the Shahnameh, the concept of the star (اختر) is also closely associated with fortune and fate. Consequently, references to stars and the celestial sphere do not necessarily indicate the practice of astrology: akhtar may serve metaphorically as a person's fortune or destiny, while the turning of the heavens may function as a literary expression for changes of circumstance or the passage of fate. Where astrologers explicitly examine the configuration of celestial bodies and make judgments concerning future events, however, the narrative provides clearer examples of an astrological tradition.
Transiting the knowledge The main role of Sasanian astrology in the transmission of knowledge was creating a bridge between ancient traditions and the Islamic era. Books such as the Anthology by Vettius Valens and the Carmen Astrologicum by Dorotheus of Sidon were first translated into Pahlavi, and later Persian scholars such as Abu Ma'shar al-Balkhi, Mashallah ibn Athari, and Naubakht translated this blended Persian-Greek-Indian knowledge into Arabic. This treasure then reached Europe through Al-Andalus and formed the foundation of Western astrology in the Middle Ages.
With the advent of Islam and the Arab conquest of Iran, heavy damage was inflicted on Iranian scientific resources and libraries. Libraries and centers holding Pahlavi documents in Ctesiphon and Khwarezm suffered destruction and looting. Many of the books of the Zoroastrian priests and scientific texts in the Pahlavi language were destroyed. In addition to the physical destruction caused by the war, the change of the scientific language from Middle Persian to Arabic caused many of the Sasanian astrological treatises that had not been destroyed to fall into oblivion over time due to a lack of readers and failure to be copied. Today, only their names or distorted translations remain in Arabic and Latin sources. In the early Islamic era in Persia, the Persian scholar Al-Khwarizmi's Zīj al-Sindhind (c. 820 CE) laid the mathematical and computational foundations for later Islamic astrology. As one of the earliest precise zijes, it contained tables for the motions of the Sun, Moon, and the five known planets, together with trigonometric tables, calendrical calculations, and astronomical parameters required for astrological computations. By synthesizing Indian, Sasanian Persian, and Ptolemaic traditions, it became the prototype for many later zijes and exerted a lasting influence on both Islamic and medieval European astronomy and astrology. Although al-Khwarizmi did not write a treatise on judicial astrology, his computational methods enabled the accurate determination of planetary positions, the Ascendant, astrological houses, and other parameters essential for casting horoscopes. Consequently, his historical importance to astrology lies primarily in providing its mathematical and astronomical infrastructure rather than in developing astrological doctrine. Many later Islamic zijes and astrological works, including those associated with Abu Ma'shar al-Balkhi, were built upon the computational tradition established by al-Khwarizmi.
The Naubakht family
The Naubakht family was a prominent Persian family of astrologers, astronomers, translators, theologians, and court officials during the early Abbasid Caliphate. Its earliest known ancestor, Naubakht the Persian, was originally a Zoroastrian astrologer at the court of al-Mansur. In 762 CE, Nawbakht, together with other astrologers including Māshā'allāh ibn Atharī, participated in selecting the astrologically auspicious time for the foundation of Baghdad. The family's activities formed part of the broader transmission of pre-Islamic Persian scientific traditions into the Islamic world. The Naubakhts helped transmit Sasanian astronomy and astrology, which had incorporated Persian, Greek, and Indian elements. Particularly important was the Persian tradition of interpreting long planetary cycles, especially the conjunctions of Jupiter and Saturn, as indicators of major historical transformations, including dynastic and religious change. This tradition of historical or political astrology subsequently became influential in medieval Islamic astrology. Naubakht's descendants continued to serve the Abbasid court. Abū Sahl ibn Naubakht worked as a court astrologer and translator of Middle Persian works into Arabic and was associated with the caliphal library under Harun al-Rashid. Later generations increasingly became prominent in Twelver Shi'ism. Among them were the theologians Abū Sahl Ismāʿīl ibn ʿAlī al-Naubakhtī and al-Hasan ibn Musa al-Naubakhti, while Husayn ibn Ruh al-Naubakhti became the third of the Four Deputies of the Twelfth Imam during the Minor Occultation. Queen Buran (Puran), of Persian descent and wife of the caliph al-Ma'mun, is associated in medieval accounts with the practice of astrology. One narrative credits her with examining the horoscope of al-Mu'tasim and foreseeing a danger involving a wooden object, a warning that supposedly saved the caliph from poisoning. Although the historicity of this story cannot be established with certainty, Buran is remarkable as one of the very few women explicitly portrayed as serious practitioners of astrology in the medieval Islamic world, and perhaps one of the earliest substantially documented female astrologers known from antiquity and the early medieval period.
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