Pointing

Pointing is a gesture specifying a direction from a person's body, usually indicating a location, person, event, thing or idea. It typically is formed by extending the arm, hand, and index finger, although it may be functionally similar to other hand gestures. Types of pointing may be subdivided according to the intention of the person, as well as by the linguistic function it serves. Pointing typically develops within the first two years of life in humans, and plays an important role in language development and reading in children. It is central to the use of sign language, with a large number of signs being some variation on pointing. The nature of pointing may differ for autistic children or who are deaf, and may also vary by sex at birth. It is typically not observed in children who are blind from birth. Pointing may vary substantially across cultures, with some having many distinct types of pointing, both with regard to the physical gestures employed and their interpretation. Pointing, especially at other people, may be considered inappropriate or rude in certain contexts and in many cultures. It is generally regarded as a species-specific human feature that does not normally occur in other primates in the wild. It has been observed in animals in captivity; however, there is disagreement on the nature of this non-human pointing.

Definition and types

The primary purpose of pointing is to indicate a direction, location, event or thing relative to a person. Pointing is typically defined as having either three or four essential elements:

Extension of the index finger; Flexing the remaining fingers into the palm, possibly with the thumb to the side; Usually, but not always, the pronation of the palm to face downward, or to face the mid-line of the body; and Extension of the arm. Gestures that do not meet these three or four criteria are usually classified as a "reach" or an "indicative gesture", although there is no clear consensus on how to differentiate between the two. Additionally, there may be little or no behavioral or functional difference depending on whether a gesture is considered to be pointing, reaching, or otherwise indicative, and reaching may be considered a form of whole-hand pointing. In one review, 11 separate definitions were identified for the related motions of reach, reaching out, reaching, indicating, and indicates.

Imperative, declarative and interrogative pointing

Types of pointing are traditionally further divided by purpose, between imperative and declarative pointing. Imperative pointing is pointing to make a request for an object, while declarative pointing is pointing to declare, to comment on an object. As Kovacs and colleagues phrase it, "'Give that to me' vs. 'I like that'". This division is similar to that made by Harris and Butterworth between "giving" and "communicative" pointing. Determining the intention of pointing in infants is done by considering three factors:

Whether the behavior is direct toward another, Whether it includes "visual-orientation behaviors" such as observing the recipient of the pointing in addition to the object pointed to, and Whether the gesture is repeated if it fails to achieve the intended effect on the recipient. Declarative pointing may further be divided into declarative expressive pointing, to express feelings about a thing, and declarative interrogative pointing, to seek information about a thing. However, according to Kovacs and colleagues interrogative pointing is clearly different from declarative pointing, since its function is to gain new information about a referent to learn from a knowledgeable addressee. Therefore, unlike declarative pointing, interrogative pointing implies an asymmetric epistemic relation between communicative partners.

Linguistic function

Types of communicative pointing may be divided by linguistic function into three main groups:

Objective pointing: pointing to an object within the visual field of both the pointer and the receiver, such as pointing to a chair which is physically present Syntactic or anaphoric pointing: pointing to linguistic entities or expressions previously identified, such as pointing to the chair which is not physically present Imaginative pointing: pointing to things that exist in the imagination, such as pointing to a fictional or remembered chair Additionally, pointing in children who are deaf may be divided between deictic or "natural" pointing, which is shared with hearing children, and symbolic pointing used specifically in sign language, learned by observing and imitating others who sign.

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