Post-Fordism describes a shift in production methods that emerged in the 1980s in response to the stagnation and profitability crisis of Fordist production, which had become rigid, bureaucratic, and less profitable. Post-Fordism is defined by flexible production, the individualization of labor relations and fragmentation of markets into distinct segments. The concept of post-Fordism was originally invented by the economist Robin Murray in the British magazine Marxism Today in 1988. The concept of "Fordism", as a distinct phase in the history of capitalist industrialization, was first developed by Antonio Gramsci in 1934. It gained further attention through Michel Aglietta's book Régulation et crises du capitalisme in 1976. Since the 1980s, the labels of "Fordism" and "post-Fordism" have been widely adopted by labor economists in Europe and North America. However, the exact definition of post-Fordism remains debated among scholars. Fordism was the leading business model for industrial mass production by corporations roughly from the 1910s to the 1960s, adopted during the great expansion of the manufacturing sector in North America, Europe and Japan (see also scientific management and time and motion study). Characteristics of Fordism was a division of work tasks according to the assembly-line model perfected by Henry Ford, and the in-house organization at one large plant location of almost everything required for the enterprise to function (from machinery, manufacture and administration to cleaning, catering and maintenance). Some theorists of post-Fordism argue that the end of the superiority of the US economy is explained by the end of Fordism, across most of the world, and its replacement by more competitive and efficient production models invented mainly in Japan. Post-Fordist production is a competitive business approach which aims to respond quickly, precisely and effectively to the existence of increased consumer choice as well as to the increased importance of the identity and personal development concerns that individuals have (as employees and as consumers). For this purpose, a great deal of effort goes into collecting consumer data and business data using information technology, to understand what the business trends and changes in consumer demand are. Post-Fordist production networks require much greater flexibility from their workforces, providing more variation in job roles for employees, more individualized labour relations, and more flexible production techniques such as lean manufacturing. Unlike Fordist enterprises, which concentrate nearly all production on-site, in one location, the post-Fordist enterprises act as a hub in a network of smaller, specialized organizations spread across different locations (nationally and internationally). Each organization contributes a specific input or service under contractual agreements. Many administrative, technical and maintenance tasks which are not considered to be part of the "core business" are outsourced. The post-Fordist model is often more cost-effective, competitive, and flexible, because resources are only held or used when needed, allowing businesses to adapt more quickly to market changes. Given that not all of the production process is centralized in one site, post-Fordist enterprises usually involve a mix of subsidiaries (owned by the parent company) and out-sourced contractors This can make it difficult for outsiders to see how the whole system operates; unlike a typical Fordist factory, a lot of the work is not visibly carried out in one single location, building, or office, or company.
Overview Post-Fordism is characterized by the following attributes:
Small-batch production Economies of scope Specialized products and jobs Use of new information technologies Greater emphasis on types of consumers and market segments The increase of all sorts of service workers and white collar workers The feminisation of the work force
Consumption and production Post-Fordist consumption is marked by individualism and consumer choice. Patterns of consumption are oriented toward lifestyle and identity and consumption is a key part of the culture. The consumer or customer needs has become the central factor which determines the organization of production. Data-driven retailers analyze a large amount of consumer data to anticipate and respond to changing patterns of consumer demand. In that sense, there is a strong affinity between post-Fordism and the rise of information technology, because information technology becomes essential to develop business strategies. Post-Fordist production prioritizes increased flexibility, in particular lean production and just-in-time production methods. This creates an economic geography of greater interaction between suppliers, manufacturers, wholesalers, retailers and customers. In post-Fordist labor markets, there a shift from workers in fixed roles within the division of labor to workers who are more adaptable to performing different roles in production. It may lead also to greater involvement by workers in the whole labor process, and greater autonomy of workers in their own work. There is an increase in "non-standard" forms of employment which are suited to changing work tasks. The typical Post-Fordist enterprise has three main strata of employees: (1) the core managerial staff, technocrats, and other skilled specialists with permanent labour contracts, (2) the regular production workers on annual (renewable) contracts, and (3) part time and casual employees on temporary contracts, who are brought in to perform project work, support and maintenance tasks, and specialized tasks, for a limited time. Workers may have fewer labour rights, but greater freedoms at work, and they are hired and fired according to their perceived performance and the amount of work that needs to be done.
Theoretical approaches According to geographer Ash Amin, the academic study of post-Fordism is commonly divided into three schools of thought: the regulation school, flexible specialization, and neo-Schumpeterianism.
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