Postformal thought is generally known as a stage in adult development where thought becomes complex, flexible, and when individuals are open to different perspectives outside of their own. This cognitive stage involves understanding that problems may have multiple, different solutions, and combining personal experiences with logic to make sense of the external world. It has been described as more flexible, logical, willing to accept moral and intellectual complexities, and dialectical than previous stages in development. Of postformal thought, Griffin and colleagues said, "one can conceive of multiple logics, choices, or perceptions ... in order to better understand the complexities and inherent biases in 'truth'". Jan Sinnott described postformal thought as the step beyond formal thought "by which individuals come to know the world outside themselves". Developmental psychology initially focused on childhood development through Jean Piaget's four stages of human cognitive development, the last stage of which is known as the formal operational stage. Extending developmental psychology to adults, most neo-Piagetian theories of cognitive development have posited one or more stages of postformal thought. Postformal thought is also addressed by some non-Piagetian theories of developmental psychology, including Michael Commons' model of hierarchical complexity and Otto Laske's constructive developmental framework.
Characteristics and operations of postformal thought Sinnott has stated that there are two main characteristics of postformal thought:
Self-reference: There is some amount of subjectivity in all knowledge, thus all knowledge is somewhat incomplete. People are constantly urged to act, though they are always "trapped in partial subjectivity" due to the limits of their knowledge. This necessity to act means they must make decisions and they continue to act based on the logic they have chosen. Thus, the logic they use is self-referential to some degree. Ordering of formal operations: As people decide what is true, logical processes develop out of these conclusions and progress and become more complex. Sinnott also described key operations involved in postformal thought:
Metatheory shift: Moving from understanding the problem as an abstract to a practical one, for example. A major shift inspired by new ways of thinking philosophically or epistemologically. Problem definition: Naming the problem. Process–product shift: Developing some sort of process to make sense of looking at similar problems but not yet arriving at an answer unique to this problem. Parameter setting: Describing limits to the future solution. Pragmatism: Practically selecting one of several solutions. Multiple solutions: Generating more than a single "correct" solution. Multiple goals: Describing multiple points that would allow the problem to be "solved". Multiple methods: Offering different ways to reach the same solution. Multiple causality: Understanding and making sense of different causes involved in the problem. Paradox: Understanding contradictions involved. Self-referential thought: Understanding that the individual is the one selecting and judging a logic that will be used to create a solution.
Philosophical foundations
Because postformal thought involves the evaluation of several "systems of truth", subjectivity is necessary. How people think about subjectivity can involve what Basseches called three styles of thought:
First, universalistic formal thinking holds the assumption that there are indeed a number of stable truths and that there is order in the universe. This order can be described formally and abstractly. Second, relativistic thinking rejects that idea that there is a single universal order and instead posits that there can be multiple orders. Realities can differ amongst individuals or groups. Relativists deny that there is a "right way" and interpret formal thinking as a show of power or order on others' experiences. Relativists also resist evaluative language that would treat modes of being as "better" or "worse" than others, and rather push for appreciating, describing, and understanding all ways. Finally, dialectical thinking plants itself in the middle of these two traditions. It assumes that the universe is dynamic and thus "the process of finding and creating order in the universe is viewed as fundamental to human life and inquiry." Dialectical thinking sets out to understand what is not known or understood about current ways of ordering and then works to create new orderings that are inclusive of what was unattended to previously. In this sense, dialectical thinkers show a tendency towards finding out what the best ordering of the universe could be in a current moment and are wary making claims about a presupposed order without critically evaluating many other perspectives and evidence. Styles of thought are relevant to making sense of the subjectivity involved in postformal thought. Sinnott said that the subjectivity is multifaceted itself. Subjectivity is both relativistic and non-relativistic—relativistic in the sense that the individual can consider how truth systems may be logically equivalent, and also non-relativistic in the sense that the individual must ultimately make a practical choice between truth systems. Often this requires understanding which system and style of thought to employ depending on the context.
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