Questionnaire

A questionnaire is a research instrument that consists of a set of questions (or other types of prompts) for the purpose of gathering information from respondents through survey or statistical study. A research questionnaire is typically a mix of close-ended questions and open-ended questions. Open-ended, long-term questions offer the respondent the ability to elaborate on their thoughts. The research questionnaire was developed by the Statistical Society of London in 1838. Although questionnaires are often designed for statistical analysis of the responses, this is not always the case. Questionnaires have advantages over some other types of survey tools in that they are cheap, do not require as much effort from the questioner as verbal or telephone surveys, and often have standardized answers that make it simple to compile data. However, such standardized answers may frustrate users as the possible answers may not accurately represent their desired responses. Questionnaires are also sharply limited by the fact that respondents must be able to read the questions and respond to them. Thus, for some demographic groups conducting a survey by questionnaire may not be concretely feasible.

History One of the earliest questionnaires was Dean Milles' Questionnaire of 1753.

Types A distinction can be made between questionnaires with questions that measure separate variables, and questionnaires with questions that are aggregated into either a scale or index. Questionnaires with questions that measure separate variables, could, for instance, include questions on:

preferences (e.g. political party) behaviors (e.g. food consumption) facts (e.g. gender) Questionnaires with questions that are aggregated into either a scale or index include for instance questions that measure:

latent traits attitudes (e.g. towards immigration) an index (e.g. Social Economic Status)

Examples A food frequency questionnaire (FFQ) is a questionnaire the type of diet consumed in people, and may be used as a research instrument. Examples of usages include assessment of intake of vitamins or toxins such as acrylamide. Ethnographic questionnaire

Questionnaire construction

Question type Usually, a questionnaire consists of a number of questions (test items) that the respondent has to answer in a set format. A distinction is made between open-ended and closed-ended questions. An open-ended question asks the respondent to formulate his own answer, whereas a closed-ended question asks the respondent to pick an answer from a given number of options. The response options for a closed-ended question should be exhaustive and mutually exclusive. Four types of response scales for closed-ended questions are distinguished:

Dichotomous, where the respondent has two options. The dichotomous question is generally a "yes/no" close-ended question. This question is usually used in case of the need for necessary validation. It is the most natural form of a questionnaire. Nominal-polytomous, where the respondent has more than two unordered options. The nominal scale, also called the categorical variable scale, is defined as a scale used for labeling variables into distinct classifications and does not involve a quantitative value or order. Ordinal-polytomous, where the respondent has more than two ordered options (Bounded)Continuous, where the respondent is presented with a continuous scale A respondent's answer to an open-ended question is coded into a response scale afterward. An example of an open-ended question is a question where the testee has to complete a sentence (sentence completion item).

Question sequence In general, questions should flow logically from one to the next. To achieve the best response rates, questions should flow from the least sensitive to the most sensitive, from the factual and behavioural to the attitudinal, and from the more general to the more specific. There typically is a flow that should be followed when constructing a questionnaire in regards to the order that the questions are asked. The order is as follows:

Screens Warm-ups Transitions Skips Difficult Classification Screens are used as a screening method to find out early whether or not someone should complete the questionnaire. Warm-ups are simple to answer, help capture interest in the survey, and may not even pertain to research objectives. Transition questions are used to make different areas flow well together. Skips include questions similar to "If yes, then answer question 3. If no, then continue to question 5." Difficult questions are towards the end because the respondent is in "response mode." Also, when completing an online questionnaire, the progress bars lets the respondent know that they are almost done so they are more willing to answer more difficult questions. Classification, or demographic question should be at the end because typically they can feel like personal questions which will make respondents uncomfortable and not willing to finish survey.

Basic rules for questionnaire item construction Use statements that are interpreted in the same way by members of different subpopulations of the population of interest. Use statements where persons that have different opinions or traits will give different answers. Think of having an "open" answer category after a list of possible answers. Use only one aspect of the construct you are interested in per item. Use positive statements and avoid negatives or double negatives. Do not make assumptions about the respondent. Use clear and comprehensible wording, easily understandable for all educational levels Use correct spelling, grammar and punctuation. Avoid items that contain more than one question per item (e.g. Do you like strawberries and potatoes?). Question should not be biased or even leading the participant towards an answer. Incorporate research questions like MaxDiff and Conjoint to help collect actionable data.

Multi-item scales

Within social science research and practice, questionnaires are most frequently used to collect quantitative data using multi-item scales with the following characteristics:

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