A robotaxi, also known as robot taxi, robo-taxi, self-driving taxi or driverless taxi, is an autonomous car (SAE automation level 4 or 5) operated for a ridesharing company. Consultancy firms predict that robotaxis operated in an autonomous mobility on demand (AMoD) service could be a large application of autonomous cars at scale, especially in urban areas. Market forecasts suggest they have a positive impact on congestion and parking over private cars, while some firms such as Kearney predict a negative impact due to induced demand. Studies on the impacts on road safety are mixed, with crash rates higher than humans in certain pilots. Robotaxis could also reduce urban pollution and energy consumption, since less weight and range is necessary compared to individually owned vehicles. The expected reduction in number of vehicles means less embodied energy; however energy consumption for redistribution of empty vehicles must be taken into account. Robotaxis would reduce operating costs by eliminating the need for a human driver, which might make it an affordable form of transportation and increase the popularity of transportation-as-a-service (TaaS) as opposed to individual car ownership. Such developments could lead to job destruction and new challenges concerning operator liabilities. In 2023, some robotaxis caused congestion when they blocked roads due to lost cellular connectivity, and others failed to properly yield to emergency vehicles. As of 2023, there has been one fatality associated with a robotaxi, a pedestrian who was hit by an Uber test vehicle in 2018. Predictions of the widespread and rapid introduction of robotaxis – by as early as 2018 – have not yet been realized. Several companies provide robotaxi services of varying degrees of automation in parts of the world. As of 2025, the number and scope of these services is rapidly expanding, but they still all operate at a financial loss. An American Automobile Association survey in 2025 said that only 13% of respondents would trust a self-driving vehicle.
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Companies with active robotaxi services include Avride, Baidu, Motional, Pony.ai, Tesla, Waymo, WeRide and Zoox.
Vehicle costs So far, most trials have involved specially modified passenger cars with space for two or four passengers sitting in the back seats behind a partition. LIDAR, cameras and other sensors have been used on most vehicles. The cost of early vehicles was estimated in 2020 at up to US$400,000 due to custom manufacture and specialized sensors. However, the prices of some components such as LIDAR have fallen significantly. In January 2021, Waymo stated its costs were approximately $180,000 per vehicle, and its operating cost at $0.30 per mile (~$0.19 per km), well below Uber and Lyft, but this excludes the cost of fleet technicians and customer support. Baidu announced in June 2021 it would start producing purpose-built robotaxi vehicles for 500,000 yuan ($77,665) each under the Apollo brand. Tesla has discussed a sub-$25,000 vehicle omitting the use of sensors and solely relying on camera data and plans to enter the market with a purpose-built vehicle for Robotaxi service, the Tesla Cybercab, in 2026.
Passenger tests Several companies are testing robotaxi services, especially in the United States and in China. All operate only in a geo-fenced area. Service areas for robotaxis, also known as the Objective Design Domain (ODD), are specially designated zones where robotaxis can provide service. Separate to these efforts have been trials of larger shared autonomous vehicles on fixed routes with designated stops, able to carry between 6 and 10 passengers. These shuttle buses have thus far operated at low speeds.
Current obstacles to robotaxis At present, it is not only technical issues that hinder the widespread use of robotaxis, but also social issues. Consumers' concerns about the reliability and safety of self-driving taxis are an obstacle to broad acceptance. For example, system failures during the service process and the perception of the risks of an accident reduces the number of users. In addition, consumers have doubts about whether the robotaxi can cope with complex urban environments or severe weather conditions.
Licenses In February 2018, Arizona granted Waymo a Transportation Network Company permit. In February 2022, the California Public Utilities Commission (CPUC) issued Drivered Deployment permits to Cruise and Waymo to allow passenger service in autonomous vehicles with a safety driver present in the vehicle. These carriers must hold a valid California Department of Motor Vehicles (DMV) Deployment permit and meet the requirements of the CPUC Drivered Deployment program. In June 2022, Cruise received approval to operate a commercial robotaxi service in San Francisco. In April 2022, China gave Baidu and Pony.ai its first permits to deploy robotaxis without safety drivers on open roads within a 23 square mile area in the Beijing Economic-Technological Development Area. In August 2023, the CPUC approved granting additional operating authority for Cruise LLC and Waymo LLC to conduct commercial passenger service using vehicles without safety drivers in San Francisco. The approval includes the ability for both companies to charge fares for rides at any time of day. California subsequently enlarged Waymo's permitted operating area to specified San Francisco Bay Area localities, to airports and freeways in the area, and, in late 2025, to the entire Bay Area including the North and East Bay and, after securing an additional permit, to Sacramento, California.
History
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