Sanskrit inherits from its parent, the Proto-Indo-European language, the capability of forming compound nouns, also widely seen in kindred languages, especially German, Greek, and English. However, Sanskrit, especially in the later stages of the language, significantly expands on this both in terms of the number of elements making up a single compound and the volume of compound usage in the literature, a development which is unique within Indo-European to Sanskrit and closely related languages. Further, this development in the later language is an entirely artificial, literary construct and does not reflect the spoken language.
Background In Sanskrit, as in Proto-Indo-European, a compound is formed by taking the stem-form of the first element (i.e. removing its inflexion) and combining the two elements with a single accented syllable. In the later language, this process can be repeated recursively—in theory, ad infinitum, with the freshly made compound becoming the first element of a new one. The process of 'resolving' the compound, i.e., expounding the meaning using the component words declined as in sentence form is termed vigraha·vākya. Broadly, compounds can be divided into two classes: endocentric and exocentric.
Endocentric compounds An endocentric compound, usually called determinative, is where the compound is essentially the sum of its parts, the meaning being an extension of one of the parts:
blackbird → a type of black bird White House → the official residence of the US president siṃha·purás → lion-city (Singapore)
Exocentric compounds An exocentric compound refers to something outside the components:
redhead → someone with red hair pickpocket → someone who picks someone else's pockets 'bahu·vrīhi' → lit. 'much-rice', i.e., possessing much rice: an indication of wealth Indeed, this term 'bahuvrihi' is used both in Sanskrit and standard Indo-European linguistics to denote this type of compound. Sanskrit expands on these to provide several further distinctions as below:
Classification In traditional Sanskrit grammar, compounds are divided into the following main classes:
Tatpuruṣa Tatpuruṣa proper Karmadhāraya Dvigu Nañ-tatpuruṣa Prādi and gati Upapada Bahuvrīhi Dvigu Dvandva Avyayībhāva The first two of these, tatpuruṣa and bahuvrīhi, are Indo-European inheritances, the latter two are Indic innovations. Alongside the term bahuvrīhi, tatpuruṣa has also been adopted in mainstream Indo-European linguistics as the technical term denoting this type of compounding. The following sections give an outline of the main types of compounds with examples. The examples demonstrate the composition of the compound's elements, and the meanings in English generally correspond to them, in most cases being a similar compound as well. Where this is not the case or the meaning is not clear, a further resolution is provided.
Tatpuruṣa (determinative) A tatpuruṣa is an endocentric compound composed of two elements, wherein the first one, named the attributive, determines the second one. Based on the grammatical nature of the attributive member, six varieties of tatpuruṣa compounds are identified as seen in the classification above. A further distinction is also made based on whether the attributive is in the nominative or an oblique case.
Tatpuruṣa proper The first member here is an attributive in an oblique relationship with the second, and are therefore termed dependent determinatives.
Karmadhāraya-tatpuruṣa (descriptive) In a karmadhāraya-tatpuruṣa compound, the first element qualifies the second one adjectively when the latter is a noun. When the second member is an adjective, the qualification is adverbial. Other parts of speech besides adjectives and adverbs may be used to obtain the adjective or adverbial qualification.
Dvigu-tatpuruṣa (numerative) In essence dvigu can refer to several compound types where the first element is a numeral. Dvigu-tatpuruṣa compounds are a special subcategory of karmadhārayas.
dvigu compounds of bahuvrīhi type are noted below.
Nañ-tatpuruṣa (negative) In a nañ-tatpuruṣa compound, the first element is a privative, a negator: a- (before consonant), an- (before vowel) or na-, just like the English un-, Latin-derived in-, non- or Greek-derived a- (before consonant), an- (before vowel) .
Upapada-tatpuruṣa These are composed of a second member that occurs only in a compound and cannot stand on its own. These are either roots or verbal derivatives from them.
Aluk-tatpuruṣa In an aluk-tatpuruṣa compound, in contrast to the standard pattern of being in stem form, the first element takes a case form as if in a sentence:
Dvandva (co-ordinative) These consist of two or more noun stems connected with "and" (copulative or co-ordinative). There are mainly three kinds of dvandva pair constructions in Sanskrit:
Itaretara-dvandva The result of itaretara-dvandva is an enumerative word, the meaning of which refers to all its constituent members. The resultant compound word is in the dual or plural number and takes the gender of the final member in the compound construction. Examples:
Samāhāra-dvandva Words may be organised in a compound to form a metonym, and sometimes the words may comprise all the constituent parts of the whole. The resultant bears a collective sense and is always singular and neutral.
Ekaśeṣa-dvandva Some Sanskrit grammarians identify a third kind of dvandva which they call ekaśeṣa-dvandva, where only one stem remains in what is viewed as the compound of multiple words.
Āmreḍita (iterative) While not strictly copulative, this is a compound consisting of the same word repeated with the first occurrence accented. Āmreḍita compounds are used to express repetitiveness; for example, from dív- (day) we obtain divé-dive ('day after day', daily) and from devá- (god) we obtain deváṃ-devam or devó-devas ('deity after deity').
Bahuvrīhi (possessive)
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