Science education in England is generally regulated at all levels for assessments that are England's, from 'primary' to 'tertiary' (university). Below university level, science education is the responsibility of three bodies: the Department for Education, Ofqual and the QAA, but at university level, science education is regulated by various professional bodies, and the Bologna Process via the QAA. The QAA also regulates science education for some qualifications that are not university degrees via various qualification boards, but not content for GCSEs, and GCE AS and A levels. Ofqual on the other hand, regulates science education for GCSEs and AS/A levels, as well as all other qualifications, except those covered by the QAA, also via qualification boards. The Department for Education prescribes the content for science education for GCSEs and AS/A levels, which is implemented by the qualification boards, who are then regulated by Ofqual. The Department for Education also regulates science education for students aged 16 years and under. The department's policies on science education (and indeed all subjects) are implemented by local government authorities in all state schools (also called publicly funded schools) in England. The content of the nationally organised science curriculum (along with other subjects) for England is published in the National Curriculum, which covers key stage 1 (KS1), key stage 2 (KS2), key stage 3 (KS3) and key stage 4 (KS4). The four key stages can be grouped a number of ways; how they are grouped significantly affects the way the science curriculum is delivered. In state schools, the four key stages are grouped into KS1–2 and KS3–4; KS1–2 covers primary education while KS3–4 covers secondary education. But in private or 'public' (which in the United Kingdom are historic independent) schools (not to be confused with 'publicly funded' schools), the key stage grouping is more variable, and rather than using the terms ‘primary’ and 'secondary’, the terms ‘prep’ and ‘senior’ are used instead. Science is a compulsory subject in the National Curriculum of England, Wales, and Northern Ireland; state schools have to follow the National Curriculum while independent schools need not follow it. That said, science is compulsory in the Common Entrance Examinations for entry into senior schools, so it does feature prominently in the curricula of independent schools. Beyond the National Curriculum and Common Entrance Examinations, science is optional, but the government of the United Kingdom (comprising England, Wales, Scotland, and Northern Ireland) provides incentives for students to continue studying science subjects. Science is regarded as vital to the economic growth of the United Kingdom (UK). For students aged 16 years (the upper limit of compulsory school age in England but not compulsory education as a whole) and over, there is no compulsory nationally organised science curriculum for all state/publicly funded education providers in England to follow, and individual providers can set their own content, although they often (and in the case of England's state/publicly funded post-16 schools and colleges have to) get their science (and indeed all) courses accredited or made satisfactory (ultimately by either Ofqual or the QAA via the qualification boards). Universities do not need such approval, but there is a reason for them to seek accreditation regardless. Moreover, UK universities have obligations to the Bologna Process to ensure high standards. Science education in England has undergone significant changes over the centuries; facing challenges over that period, and still facing challenges to this day.
History
Up to 1800 Gillard (2011) gives a documented account of science curriculum and education during this period. According to his work, the teaching of science in England dates back to at least Anglo-Saxon times. Gillard explains that the first schools in England (that are known of) were created by St Augustine when he brought Christianity to England around the end of the sixth century—there were almost certainly schools in Roman Britain before St Augustine, but they did not survive after the Romans left. It is thought the first grammar school was established at Canterbury in 598 during the reign of King Ethelbert. Gillard also mentions that in Bede's Ecclesiastical History, science (in the form of astronomy) was already part of the curriculum in the early schools of the 600s. As the founding of grammar schools spread from south to north of England, science education spread with it. Science, as it is known today, developed from two spheres of knowledge: natural philosophy and natural history. The former was associated with the reasoning and explanation of nature while the latter focused more on living things. Both strands of knowledge can be identified in a curriculum provided by a school in York run by Alcuin in the 770s and 780s. Subsequent Viking invasions of England interrupted the development of schools, but despite this, through the ages, education in England was provided by the church and grammar schools (which were linked to the church). The link between church and school started to change in the 1300s when schools independent of the church began to emerge. University education in England started in Oxford in the 1100s (although there is evidence that teaching began there in the 1000s). Like pre-university education, science at Oxford University was initially taught in the form of astronomy (as part of the quadrivium). The Renaissance spurred physical inquiry into nature which led to natural philosophy developing into physics and chemistry, and natural history developing into biology; these three disciplines form natural science, from which interdisciplinary fields (or at least their modern versions) that overlap two or all three branches of natural science develop. This emerging trend in physical inquiry does not appear to have been reflected in the science curriculum in schools at the time. Even in universities, the changes to science education that were necessary as a result of the Renaissance occurred very slowly. It was not till the 1800s that the science curriculum and education recognised in England today at all levels truly began to emerge.
1800s Up until the 1800s, there were only two stages of education: elementary and university. However, in the nineteenth century, elementary education began to divide into primary (still called elementary) and secondary education. Elementary schools were defined in law in England through a series of Acts of Parliament which made education compulsory and free for children up to the age of 11 (later increased to 12). There were six (and later seven) standards for children to pass; science education did not feature in any of these standards, but for some schools, it was an add-on, especially at the higher standards (such as sixth and seventh—science subjects included physics, chemistry, mechanics). Promotion from one standard to the next was on merit and not age. Not all children completed all standards, which meant that by the age of 12, there were children that had not ‘completed’ their elementary education. Of course, families that could afford (and wanted) to keep their children in school post-compulsory age to pass all standards did so. In fact, some children stayed in school beyond the seventh standard. Schools that offered post-seventh standard education became known as higher grade schools, of which science education was a recognised feature of their curricula.
Taunton Report 1868 This was by far the single most important development for science education in schools in England in the nineteenth century from a British parliament point of view. Ironically, the original purpose of the committee that authored the 'Taunton' Report of 1868, or more formally, Volume II Miscellaneous Papers of the Schools Inquiry Commission (1868), was to examine how best endowed schools should be managed, something Parliament at the time thought was of utmost importance. The committee for the report was chaired by Lord Taunton (born Henry Labouchere). In heading the preparation for the report, Lord Taunton sent a circular letter listing four questions to a number of prominent people in different parts of England on 28 May 1866; the first three were endowment-related issues, but the fourth question was on how to encourage a due supply of qualified teachers. Apart from the contents page, the word "science" first appears on page 45 of the report in a reply by one of the recipients of the circular letter; that recipient was Reverend W C Lake. The reverend comments:
The question as to the best mode to be adopted for obtaining teachers both in sufficient numbers, and of the kind desirable for middle-class, education, seems to me more difficult than it would at first appear. ... you want men with an University culture, and yet not with exactly an University education ... You do not, I presume, want them to teach Greek; and as to Latin it ought not, in my opinion at least, to be the staple work of the school compared with arithmetic, some mathematics, modern languages, and history, and the principles of some important branches of physical science. (Rev. Lake's reply to Lord Taunton IN Report by Schools Inquiry Commission, 1868: p45) On page 77 of the report, Edward Twisleton, a member of the Schools Inquiry Commission, comments on the answers provided to the four questions set by the committee's chairman, Lord Taunton, based on feedback from the circular letter sent. To the first question, Twisleton writes:
In providing,—what is generally a part of the arrangements of Prussian gymnasia—a museum of natural history and a cabinet with the philosophical instruments and other materials requisite for instruction in the experimental sciences. The Prussian system should be followed, in which two hours of each week are devoted throughout the school to lessons in these branches of knowledge; the instruction in the lower classes being in sciences of pure observation, such, as zoology and botany, while in the upper parts of the school instruction is given in the sciences usually called experimental, such as pneumatics, hydrostatics, and others. This system, however, cannot be adopted, unless there is a certain preliminary outlay of money, and it seems unobjectionable that this money should come from an endowment. (Twisleton's response IN Report by Schools Inquiry Commission, 1868: p77) There were noticeable opinions on the issue of science education from contributors that wrote to the committee to express their views. One by Robert Mosley of Holgate Seminary, York (pages 104 to 105 of the report), suggested the inclusion of physical sciences in a 'National education'; this national education being the best way to utilise educational endowment. Based on feedback from contributors, the Taunton Committee gave several arguments in favour of science education; two of them are:
As providing the best discipline in observation and collection of facts, in the combination of inductive with deductive reasoning, and in accuracy both of thought and language. and
Because the methods and results of science have so profoundly affected all the philosophical thought of the age, that an educated man is under a very great disadvantage if he is unacquainted with them. (Report by Schools Inquiry Commission, 1868: p219) The committee subsequently made several recommendations; the first three on promoting scientific education in schools are listed below:
i. That in all schools natural science be one of the subjects to be taught, and that in every public school at least one natural science master be appointed for the purpose. ii. That at least three hours a week be devoted to such scientific instruction. iii. That natural science should be placed on an equal footing with mathematics and modern languages in effecting promotions and in winning honours and prizes. (Report by Schools Inquiry Commission, 1868: p222) The issue of increased cost for fee payers played heavily on the minds of the committee, and although the committee felt that for "a wealthy country like England" (page 219 of the report), a slight increase in cost should not be a barrier to science education, it was left to individual schools to decide how to incorporate science into their curricula.
Red brick universities By the time of the Taunton Report, there were four universities in England (Oxford, Cambridge, Durham, and London), but from the 1880s, a new wave of universities / university colleges completely separate from the original four began to emerge; these universities were called red brick universities. The first of these universities was established in Manchester in 1880 and was called Victoria University. Over the subsequent 80 years, a further 11 universities outside London, Cambridge, Durham, and Oxford were founded, significantly expanding the availability of university (science) education throughout England. All through the 1800s, science was becoming increasingly specialised into the different areas we know today.
1900s The Education Act 1902 led to the higher grade schools (alluded to earlier) and fee-paying schools being absorbed into the legally defined “higher education” (meaning any education that was not elementary (as primary education was known at the time)). Despite science education in higher grade schools and the recommendations of the Taunton Report, as well as the British Association for the Advancement of Science's campaign for a science curriculum, science was still seen as a minor subject by the most prestigious public schools. The problem was that most of these public schools had close relationships with Oxford and Cambridge universities which offered the majority of their scholarships in classics, and so science was regarded in low importance by the prestigious schools. Consequently, science education varied significantly across English schools. Numerous education-related Acts were passed throughout the twentieth century, but the most important in the history of science education in England was the Education Reform Act 1988 (see next subsection). Another act of importance to the development of science education below university level in England was the Education Act 1944. The 1944 Act's contribution was indirect though – it raised the compulsory school age to 15 (but made provisions for it to be raised to 16 at a future date, which happened in 1972 (which is still the case today)). By raising the school leaving age to 16, this formed the basis for creating a nationally organised science curriculum and education in England (see next subsection). However, the Education Act 1944 did not stipulate that science be taught. For university-level science education, two significant developments were the expansion of distance learning science courses and the introduction of the World Wide Web (via the Internet) into the delivery of science teaching (although this has also been adopted below university level).
Education Reform Act 1988 This was the most important development in the history of science education in England. It was this Act that established the National Curriculum and made science compulsory across both secondary and primary schools (alongside maths and English). The 1988 Act in effect implemented the recommendation of the Taunton Committee made more than a century earlier. The Act also established the now familiar “key stages”.
2000s The most significant developments to the science curriculum and education in this period to date have been the expansion of the compulsory science content in the National Curriculum and the associated changes to its assessment. Another significant event was the passing of the Education and Skills Act 2008, which raised the education leaving age in England to 18. It is unclear whether this extension of compulsory education will result in more science learners as science is not compulsory after the age of 16—the school leaving age, which the 2008 Act did not alter.
Compulsory science content and national assessments
Learning aims Compulsory science content for publicly funded schools (state schools) is provided by the National Curriculum and generally applies to children between the ages of 5 and 16. These eleven years of compulsory education are divided by the state into four key stages: KS1, KS2, KS3, and KS4. Regardless of key stage, the National Curriculum states two overarching aims of science education:
develop scientific knowledge and conceptual understanding through the specific disciplines of biology, chemistry and physics develop understanding of the nature, processes and methods of science through different types of science enquiries that help them to answer scientific questions about the world around them A third aim is common to KS1–3:
are equipped with the scientific knowledge required to understand the uses and implications of science, today and for the future. But for KS4, the third aim is more detailed, and there is also a fourth aim:
develop and learn to apply observational, practical, modelling, enquiry, problem-solving skills and mathematical skills, both in the laboratory, in the field and in other environments; develop their ability to evaluate claims based on science through critical analysis of the methodology, evidence and conclusions, both qualitatively and quantitatively. The need for mathematical skills is stressed by the National Curriculum across all key stages, but more so at KS3 and KS4.
Pedagogical considerations The National Curriculum for science is a spiral curriculum; it is tends to be prescriptive. Because of its spiral nature, this makes its learning essentially constructivist. These points are illustrated in the subsections that follow. In addition, the Science National Curriculum emphasises the need for active learning right from the child's earliest exposure to the curriculum. Research on the value of active learning has been demonstrated and published. Experimentation by the child is underscored in the curriculum accompanied by careful discussion of what was observed. Despite these positive features, it has been argued that evaluating the effectiveness of the National Curriculum on learning is difficult to answer.
State of science education in primary education There is evidence that primary school pupils, that is, KS1 and KS2, in the UK get very little science education. The reason for this appears to be a lack of science expertise in primary schools. This has three implications: First, primary school pupils in state schools (that is, publicly funded schools) generally do not start getting regular science classes till KS3 (the first stage of secondary education). This leads to the second implication, in that there is likely to be a wide variation in pre-secondary school science knowledge among pupils at the start of KS3. And the third implication, as lack of science education does not appear to be an issue for pupils in prep schools (recall that prep schools are private or independent schools), it means that pupils that have done their primary education in state schools, wishing to transfer to independent schools at senior level, are likely to face a significant disadvantage when attempting the Science Common Entrance Examination (since the state primary school pupils would have done relatively little science unless supplemented by private tutorials).
KS1 Key stage 1 (KS1) covers the first two years of compulsory school education in the National Curriculum. As such, the years are referred to as years 1 and 2. Children are typically in the age range 5–7. If a full science curriculum is offered as prescribed by the National Curriculum, then the emphasis of science at this stage should be observation and describing or drawing things that the child can see, either around them or from a book or photograph or video; the feel of materials is also an important feature of KS1 science. Abstract concepts in science are not introduced at this stage (at least not on the basis of the National Curriculum). As a result, the science curriculum at KS1 should be more or less plants and animals, and materials, with the emphasis on what can easily be seen or described by feeling things.
KS2 (including SATs, 11+ CEs, and teacher assessments) Key stage 2 (KS2) covers years 3, 4, 5 and 6 of compulsory school education in the National Curriculum. It is the longest stage of compulsory school education in England. Children are typically in the age range 7–11. The National Curriculum divides KS2 into lower KS2 (years 3 and 4) and upper KS2 (years 5 and 6). If a full science curriculum is offered as prescribed by the National Curriculum then year 3 should continue from KS1, but with more complex observations for the child to do on plants and animals, and materials—rocks, fossils and soils, are brought in. Setting up simple experiments and recording data should become increasingly important at this stage. Hazards and dangers of certain scientific experiments (such as feeling things after they have been heated) should be drilled into pupils; necessary precautions against such dangers/hazards are taught. New areas should be introduced: light (and the dangers of looking directly at sunlight with necessary precautions), forces and magnets. In year 4, classification of living and non-living things come to the fore; additional areas introduced include:
Environmental change Digestive system and food chains States of matter Sound Electricity In years 5 and 6 (upper KS2), the National Curriculum states that the emphasis should be on enabling pupils develop a deeper understanding of scientific ideas. The need to read, spell and pronounce scientific vocabulary correctly is emphasised by the National Curriculum. This emphasis probably reflects the fact that by the age of 9, 10, or 11, a child in England should be able to read and write properly. Year 5 should continue on from year 4, studying increasingly more complex aspects of what was introduced in year 4. Also, the pupil should start learning to accept or refute ideas based on scientific evidence. Additional areas should include:
Life cycles Reproduction in some plants and animals Growing old Properties and changes of materials Earth and space Year 6 not only continues on from year 5, adding more complex aspects of what was learnt in year 5, but should also prepare the pupil for KS3 science; additional areas include:
Circulatory system Drugs and lifestyle Evolution and inheritance
SATs and teacher assessments Between the early 1990s and early 2010s, state school pupils had to take statutory SAT exams at the end of KS2 science although teacher assessments were also allowed. The KS2 SAT science exam consisted of two papers (forty-five minutes each). The scores from both papers were combined to give a final score. This score would then be converted into a numerical level, which would in turn be converted into an expectation level. The conversion scale for the levels at KS2 SAT science is shown in the table below.
Level 6 (exceptional) was also available, but only in mathematics and English (reading); a separate test for level 6 assessment had to be taken, which had to be marked externally. Science KS2 SATs were discontinued in 2013 and replaced by teacher assessments (which were already allowed during the time of SATs). In addition to teacher assessments, a SAT replacement assessment called key stage 2 science sampling test is now offered to five randomly selected pupils in a school every two years. The test comprises three papers: ‘b’ for biology, ‘c’ for chemistry, and ‘p’ for physics (each twenty-five minutes). The aim of the tests is to assess how well children are getting on with the curriculum. The first test of this kind was in the summer of 2016.
11+ CEs (Common Entrance Examination) This exam is run by the Independent Schools Examinations Board and is taken by prep school pupils wishing to be admitted into senior schools (although not all senior schools admit 11-year-olds). Some state school pupils in KS2 use the exam to make the transition into an independent (senior) school. The syllabus for the 11+ CE science exam is based on the National Curriculum for KS2 science; one paper for science (one hour) is taken. In addition to the examinable syllabus for the 11+ CE, there is also prep-KS3 science material for the pupil to cover; this prep-KS3 science material is not examinable but is required as preparation for KS3 science study in senior school if admitted.
The ‘traditional’ three sciences for KS3 and KS4 The National Curriculum for KS3–4 science differs from KS1–2, not just in its complexity, but unlike the latter, the science curriculum is divided into three explicit parts: biology, chemistry, and physics. Typically, in a state secondary school, each science will have a dedicated teacher who is a specialist in the subject, but it is not unusual for a school or college to recruit a teacher that can deliver two or even all three sciences (depending on the breadth of knowledge of the teacher and staff resources of the school). Recall that for many, if not most, entrants to state secondary schools, KS3 will be the first stage at which they get regular science education. Below is a broad summary of the curriculum of each part at KS3/4 level, simplified for the purposes of this article into KS3/4 core areas.
Biology Defined in the National Curriculum as:
... the science of living organisms (including animals, plants, fungi and microorganisms) and their interactions with each other and the environment. The content for KS3/4 biology in the National Curriculum can be divided into the following core areas:
Cell biology and organisation Organ systems of animals and plants Biochemistry Health, diseases, and medicines Bioenergetics Ecosystem Genetics and inheritance Variation and evolution
Chemistry Defined in the National Curriculum as:
... the science of the composition, structure, properties and reactions of matter, understood in terms of atoms, atomic particles and the way they are arranged and link together. The content for KS3/4 chemistry in the National Curriculum can be divided into the following core areas:
Atoms and the particulate nature of matter The periodic table and periodicity Properties of matter Chemical reactions and changes Chemical analyses Chemical energetics Uses of matter (natural and synthetic) Earth and atmosphere
Physics Defined in the National Curriculum as:
... the science of the fundamental concepts of field, force, radiation and particle structures, which are inter-linked to form unified models of the behaviour of the material universe. The content for KS3/4 physics in the National Curriculum can be divided into the following core areas:
Energy and thermodynamics Physical nature of matter Particle model of matter Atomic structure and radioactivity Electricity, magnetism and electromagnetism Mechanics Waves and optics Space physics and astrophysics The above 'KS3/4 core areas' will form the bases of outlining science education at levels higher than KS4 later on in the article.
KS3 (including SATs, 13+ CEs, and teacher assessments) Key stage 3 (KS3) covers years 7, 8 and 9 of compulsory school education in the National Curriculum. Pupils are typically in the age range 11–14.
SATs and teacher assessments Between the early 1990s and late 2000s (‘late noughties’), state school pupils had to take statutory SAT exams at the end of KS3 science (just like KS2) although teacher assessments were also allowed. The KS3 SAT science exam consisted of two papers (one hour each). The scores from both papers were combined to give a final score. This score would then be converted into a numerical level, which would in turn be converted into an expectation level. The conversion scale for the levels at KS3 SAT is shown below.
The conversion of the raw score from the two papers to a numerical level depended on the ‘tier’ taken by the student. For science KS3 SATs, two tiers were available: lower tier and higher tier. Levels 3–6 were available at the lower tier while levels 5–7 were available at the higher tier. The conversion scale for each tier's scores are shown below.
Level 8 (exceptional) was not available to science KS3 SATs (not even at the higher tier); it was available to mathematics, but only at the highest tier (levels 6–8) out of four tiers that were available to mathematics KS3 SATs. Science KS3 SATs were discontinued in 2010 and replaced by teacher assessments (just like science KS2 SATs). Despite the discontinuation of statutory science KS3 SATs, the past papers are still used by schools today.
13+ CEs (Common Entrance Examination) Like the 11+ CEs, the 13+ CEs are taken by prep school pupils wishing to be admitted to independent senior schools; some senior schools only admit from the age of 13. The examination provides an opportunity for some KS3 state school pupils to make the transition into an independent school. The syllabus for the 13+ CE science exam(s) is based on the National Curriculum for KS3 science, although not all of the KS3 science content is examinable in the CE, but the parts left out are recommended for teaching in year 9. For the exam, the candidate can take either the simpler one paper in science (one hour) comprising biology, chemistry and physics parts, or three higher (and harder) papers (forty minutes each)—one in biology, one in chemistry, and one in physics. In addition, individual senior schools may have exams for entry into other years; for example, 14+, 16+ (for post-16 or ‘KS5’ study); details of which they give on their websites.
KS4 (including GCSEs and IGCSEs) Key stage 4 (KS4) covers years 10 and 11 of compulsory school education, and pupils are typically in the age range 14–16. At the end of KS4, students in English schools usually take GCSE or IGCSE exams.
Overview of GCSE sciences GCSE science can be taken at either foundation tier or higher tier. Although GCSEs are closely linked to KS4, schools actually start tackling the GCSE part of the National Curriculum from year 9 (KS3). This is certainly the case for mathematics and science, and it is because of the vastness of the content to be covered for the GCSEs in those subjects. In the past, there were several science GCSE routes, but following changes to GCSEs in the 2010s, the number of routes have simplified somewhat. Today, in most cases, science GCSE can be taken either as a combined single subject (which is worth two GCSE subjects—also known as combined science) or as the three separate subjects of physics, chemistry, and biology (each worth a single GCSE subject in its own right—also known as triple science). When biology, chemistry, and physics are taken as separate GCSE subjects, the tiers can be mixed. So, for instance, a student could take say, biology at higher tier but chemistry at foundation tier. By contrast, tiers cannot be mixed in combined science (that is, all constituent parts must be taken at the same tier). Experiments (also called practicals) are compulsory in the GCSE science course, but in different ways across the boards offering GCSE science to English schools. For most boards, the results of the practicals do not count towards the final grade in the reformed GCSE (as this is determined entirely by the results of the written examination), but the school/college must submit a signed practical science statement to the board under which the science is being studied BEFORE the students can take the examination. The statement must declare that all students have completed all the required practicals. The skills and knowledge that should have been acquired from the practicals are subsequently assessed in the GCSE exams, which for most boards are entirely written (as alluded to earlier). For one board (CCEA), however, in addition to the examination of practical skills in the written papers, the results of some of the actual practicals do count towards the final grade in the reformed GCSE. Currently, GCSE sciences in England are available from five boards: AQA, OCR, Edexcel. WJEC-Eduqas, and CCEA. Although all five boards provide GCSE science to English schools, not all of these boards are based in England: AQA, OCR, and Edexcel are based in England, but WJEC-Eduqas is based in Wales while CCEA is based in Northern Ireland. Schools are free to choose any board for their science, and where the three sciences of chemistry, physics, and biology are being taken independently at GCSE level, all three sciences need not be taken from the same board.
Outline of GCSE science routes For GCSE sciences, following changes in the mid-2010s, a student can go for either combined science or triple science. Within each science route, in some cases, there is the possibility of taking either a trilogy or synergy course. In trilogy, science is delivered in the three traditional parts of biology, chemistry, and physics, but in synergy, science is delivered through the prism of scenarios and contexts. Only one board (AQA) offers synergy and trilogy, and only for combined science. The structure and time duration of the GCSE science examinations is not universal across the boards, but one thing that is universal is that the content for each science in triple science is significantly greater than in combined science.
AQA AQA offers both combined and triple science, but as alluded to earlier, only combined science can be studied as a synergy or trilogy course. In trilogy, the candidate takes two papers per science (so six in total). In synergy, the candidate takes two science groups: (i) life and environmental sciences; and (ii) physical sciences; in each group, two papers are taken (so four in total). Regardless of the route, each paper is 1 hour and 45 minutes.
Edexcel For GCSE, Edexcel offers both combined and triple science but only trilogy courses for both. The number of papers and time duration for each paper are identical to AQA trilogy.
OCR OCR offers both combined and triple science but only trilogy courses for both. However, there are two trilogy courses: 'A' and 'B'. In 'A', the science is delivered through the traditional topics, but in 'B', the delivery is context-based, so, in a way, a synergy implementation of a trilogy course. The number of papers and time duration for each paper are identical to AQA trilogy.
WJEC-Eduqas For GCSE science in England, WJEC-Eduqas offers both combined and triple science but only trilogy courses for both. The number of papers for each paper are identical to AQA, but the time duration for each paper is significantly longer at 2 hours and 15 minutes.
CCEA CCEA provides the widest and most extensive GCSE science examinations; three routes are offered: single science, double science, and triple science. Only trilogy courses are available. For single science, one 1-hour paper each is offered for biology, chemistry, and physics, and one 2-hour paper is provided for the practical science exam, so in total, four papers. For double science, the candidate sits three papers each for biology, chemistry, and physics, but in each science, Paper 1 is 1 hour; Paper 2 is 1 hour and 15 minutes; and Paper 3 is a 1-hour practical examination (so nine papers in total). And for triple science, the candidate also undertakes nine papers, but the time durations are longer: Papers 1 and 2 are 1 hour and 15 minutes each at foundation tier and 1 hour and 30 minutes each at higher tier. And Paper 3, which is the practical exam, is 1 hour and 15 minutes.
Changes to GCSE science and its grading system As alluded to earlier, in the mid-2010s, the GCSE science courses of the GCSE exam boards underwent significant changes. This was in part due to changes in the National Curriculum, of which one of the areas affected the most was key stage 4 (KS4). The revised version of the National Curriculum covered more content; the one for KS4 science was first published in December 2014 and a version specifically for GCSE combined science was first published in June 2015, and first implemented in September 2016. The increased content triggered a change in the GCSE grading system from A*–G to 9–1. Much more detail on the 9–1 grading system and how it differs from A*–G can be read here.
Overview of IGCSE science routes
This variant of GCSEs, as the name suggests, is geared towards international students (that is, students from outside the UK) although it is offered by many private schools in England. IGCSEs are equivalent in value to GCSEs and although state schools can offer IGCSEs, many choose not to because IGCSE results are not eligible for inclusion into school league tables. In England, two boards offer IGCSEs for science, Edexcel and CIE.
CIE (formerly CAIE) CIE IGCSEs can be undertaken at either core or extended levels. The two levels are somewhat equivalent (although not necessarily identical) to GCSE foundation and higher tiers respectively. Regardless of level, three routes are available for CIE IGCSE sciences: combined, co-ordinated, and triple science. CIE's 'combined' science is equivalent to CCEA's single science; 'co-ordinated' science is equivalent to GCSE's combined science and CCEA's double science. For CIE combined science, the candidate sits three papers in total, and in each paper, biology, chemistry, and physics are on the same paper; the same thing goes for CIE co-ordinated science. Looking at the paper schedule, for core and combined, the candidate sits:
Paper 1, which is 45 minutes Paper 3, which is 1 hour and 15 minutes Paper 5, which is a practical exam and is 1 hour and 15 minutes, or Paper 6, which is 1 hour For extended and combined, the candidate sits:
Paper 2, which is 45 minutes Paper 4, which is 1 hour and 15 minutes Paper 5, the practical exam of 1 hour and 15 minutes, or Paper 6, 1 hour For core and co-ordinated, the candidate sits:
Paper 1, which is 45 minutes Paper 3, which is 2 hours Paper 5, the practical exam, is 2 hours, or Paper 6, which is 1 hour and 30 minutes For extended and co-ordinated, the candidate sits:
Paper 2, which is 45 minutes Paper 4, which is 2 hours Paper 5 (practical exam), which is 2 hours, or Paper 6, which is 1 hour and 30 minutes For triple science, the candidate sits three papers per science, so nine papers in total for all three sciences. Looking at the paper schedule for each science, for core and triple, per science, the candidate sits:
Paper 1, which is 45 minutes Paper 3, which is 1 hour and 15 minutes Paper 5 (practical exam), which is 1 hour and 15 minutes, or Paper 6, which is 1 hour And for extended and triple, per science, the candidate sits:
Paper 2, which is 45 minutes Paper 4, which is 1 hour and 15 minutes Paper 5 (practical exam), which is 1 hour and 15 minutes, or Paper 6, which is 1 hour
Edexcel IGCSEs Edexcel IGCSE sciences offer three routes, single, double, and triple science (just like CCEA GCSE sciences), but only one tier is available for each route. For single science, the candidate sits one paper for each science at 1 hour and 10 minutes per paper, so three in total. For double science, the candidate also sits one paper for each science at 2 hours per paper, so three in total. And for triple science, the candidate sits two papers per science: Paper 1 is 2 hours, and Paper 2 is 1 hour and 15 minutes, so six in total.
Science education post-16 or ‘KS5’ For the ages of 16, 17 and 18 (and older for those that remain in education below university level), students in England do what is sometimes loosely called ‘key stage 5’ or KS5; it has no legal meaning (unlike the other key stages). And unlike KS1–4 in which the levels of complexity of topics learnt at each stage are prescribed within relatively narrow limits, at KS5, the levels of complexity of t