A single-photon avalanche diode (SPAD), also called Geiger-mode avalanche photodiode (G-APD or GM-APD) is a solid-state photodetector within the same family as photodiodes and avalanche photodiodes (APDs), while also being fundamentally linked with basic diode behaviours. As with photodiodes and APDs, a SPAD is based around a semi-conductor p-n junction that can be illuminated with ionizing radiation such as gamma, x-rays, beta and alpha particles along with a wide portion of the electromagnetic spectrum from ultraviolet (UV) through the visible wavelengths and into the infrared (IR). In a photodiode, with a low reverse bias voltage, the leakage current changes linearly with absorption of photons, i.e. the liberation of current carriers (electrons and/or holes) due to the internal photoelectric effect. However, in a SPAD, the reverse bias is so high that a phenomenon called impact ionisation occurs which is able to cause an avalanche current to develop. Simply, a photo-generated carrier is accelerated by the electric field in the device to a kinetic energy which is enough to overcome the ionisation energy of the bulk material, knocking electrons out of an atom. A large avalanche of current carriers grows exponentially and can be triggered from as few as a single photon-initiated carrier. A SPAD is able to detect single photons providing short duration trigger pulses that can be counted. However, they can also be used to obtain the time of arrival of the incident photon due to the high speed that the avalanche builds up and the device's low timing jitter. The fundamental difference between SPADs and APDs or photodiodes, is that a SPAD is biased well above its reverse-bias breakdown voltage and has a structure that allows operation without damage or undue noise. While an APD is able to act as a linear amplifier, the level of impact ionisation and avalanche within the SPAD has prompted researchers to liken the device to a Geiger-counter in which output pulses indicate a trigger or "click" event. The diode bias region that gives rise to this "click" type behaviour is therefore called the "Geiger-mode" region. As with photodiodes the wavelength region in which it is most sensitive is a product of its material properties, in particular the energy bandgap within the semiconductor. Many materials including silicon, germanium, germanium on silicon and III-V elements such as InGaAs/InP have been used to fabricate SPADs for the large variety of applications that now utilise the run-away avalanche process. There is much research in this topic with activity implementing SPAD-based systems in CMOS fabrication technologies, and investigation and use of III-V material combinations and Ge on Si for single-photon detection at short-wave infrared wavelengths suitable for telecommunications applications.
Applications Since the 1970s, the applications of SPADs have increased significantly. Recent examples of their use include LIDAR, time of flight (ToF) 3D imaging, PET scanning, single-photon experimentation within physics, fluorescence lifetime microscopy, optical communications (particularly quantum key distribution), digital night vision, and ultrahigh sensitivity cameras.
Operation
Structures SPADs are semiconductor devices that are based on a p–n junction that is reverse-biased at an operating voltage that exceeds the junction's breakdown voltage (Figure 1). "At this bias, the electric field is so high [higher than 3×105 V/cm] that a single charge carrier injected into the depletion layer can trigger a self-sustaining avalanche. The current rises swiftly [sub-nanosecond rise-time] to a macroscopic steady level in the milliampere range. If the primary carrier is photo-generated, the leading edge of the avalanche pulse marks [with picosecond time jitter] the arrival time of the detected photon." The current continues until the avalanche is quenched by lowering the bias voltage down to or below the breakdown voltage: the lower electric field is no longer able to accelerate carriers to impact-ionize with lattice atoms, therefore current ceases. In order to be able to detect another photon, the bias voltage must be raised again above breakdown. "This operation requires a suitable circuit, which has to:
Sense the leading edge of the avalanche current. Generate a standard output pulse synchronous with the avalanche build-up. Quench the avalanche by lowering the bias down to the breakdown voltage. Restore the photodiode to the operative level. This circuit is usually referred to as a quenching circuit."
Biasing regions and current-voltage characteristic
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