Soil contamination, soil pollution, or land pollution as a part of land degradation is caused by the presence of xenobiotic (human-made) chemicals or other alteration in the natural soil environment. It is typically caused by industrial activity, agricultural chemicals or improper disposal of waste. The most common chemicals involved are petroleum hydrocarbons, polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons (such as naphthalene and benzo(a)pyrene), solvents, pesticides, and heavy metals. The concern over soil contamination stems primarily from health risks, from direct contact with contaminated soil or consumption of plants growing in contaminated soil, vapour inhalation from the contaminants, or from secondary contamination of water supplies within (groundwater) and underlying the soil (aquifer). Mapping of contaminated soil sites and the resulting cleanups are time-consuming and expensive tasks, and require expertise in geology, hydrology, chemistry, computer modelling, and GIS in Environmental Contamination, as well as an appreciation of the history of site pollution. It has been suggested that the examination of humus forms, which necessitates only a cursory glance upon ground floor thickness and structure of the underlying mineral horizon, could used at low cost for the early detection and mapping of potential soil contamination. In North America and Europe the extent of contaminated land is best known for as many of the countries in these areas have a legal framework to identify and deal with this environmental problem. Other countries tend to be less tightly regulated despite some of them have undergone significant industrialization and are searching for more regulation.
Causes Soil pollution can be caused by the following (non-exhaustive list):
Microplastics Oil spills Mining and activities by other heavy industries Accidental spills may happen during activities, etc. Corrosion of underground storage tanks (including piping used to transmit the contents) Acid rain Intensive farming Agrochemicals, such as pesticides, herbicides and fertilizers Petrochemicals Industrial accidents Road debris Construction activities Exterior lead-based paints Drainage of contaminated surface water into the soil Ammunitions, chemical agents, and other agents of war Waste disposal Oil dumping and fuel dumping Nuclear wastes Direct discharge of industrial wastes to the soil Discharge of sewage Landfill and illegal dumping Coal ash Electronic waste Contamination by rocks containing large amounts of toxic elements. Contamination by Pb due to vehicle exhaust, Cd, and Zn caused by tire wear. Contamination by strengthening air pollutants by incineration of fossil raw materials. The most common chemicals involved are petroleum hydrocarbons, solvents, pesticides, lead, and other heavy metals. Any activity that leads to other forms of soil degradation (erosion, compaction, etc.) may indirectly worsen the contamination effects in that soil remediation becomes more tedious.
Historical deposition of coal ash used for residential, commercial, and industrial heating, as well as for industrial processes such as ore smelting, were a common source of contamination in areas that were industrialized before about 1960. Coal naturally concentrates arsenic, cadmium lead and zinc during its formation, as well as other heavy metals to a lesser degree. When the coal is burned, most of these metals become concentrated in the ash (the principal exception being mercury, which evaporates). Coal ash and slag may contain sufficient lead to qualify as a "characteristic hazardous waste", defined in the US as containing more than 5 mg/L, further revised to 1.5 mg/L of extractable lead using the TCLP procedure. In addition to lead, coal ash typically contains variable but significant concentrations of polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs; e.g., benzo(a)anthracene, benzo(b)fluoranthene, benzo(k)fluoranthene, benzo(a)pyrene, indeno(1,2,3-cd)pyrene, phenanthrene, anthracene, and others). These PAHs are known human carcinogens and the acceptable concentrations of them in soil are typically from 0.1 mg/kg to 10 mg/kg, with a strong variation from a PAH to another. Coal ash and slag can be recognised by the presence of off-white grains in soil, gray heterogeneous soil, or (coal slag) bubbly, vesicular pebble-sized grains. Treated sewage sludge, known in the industry as biosolids, has become controversial as a "fertilizer". As it is the byproduct of sewage treatment, it generally contains more contaminants such as organisms, pesticides, and heavy metals than other soil. In the European Union, the Urban Waste Water Treatment Directive allows sewage sludge to be sprayed onto land, although several European countries have introduced more stringent requirements in comparison with the directive. 10 million tons dry matter of sewage sludge have been produced in Europe every year over the period 2003–2006. This has good agricultural properties due to the high nitrogen, phosphate and potassium content. However, there is a need to control sewage sludge application to agricultural land so that pathogenic microorganisms do not get into water courses and to ensure that there is no accumulation of heavy metals in the topsoil. Composting of sewage sludge allows to decrease its content in pathogens and organic pollutants (bioremediation, to the exception of persistent organic pollutants) but not that of heavy metals, although these are in a less bioavailable form.
… excerpt ends here. Continue reading the full article.
