biology

Southern brown kiwi

Southern brown kiwi is a biology topic covered in the lgStudy science library. This page brings together a partial reference excerpt, illustrations, worked examples, real-world applications and a short study plan, so you can understand Southern brown kiwi rather than just read about it. In short: The southern brown kiwi, tokoeka, or common kiwi (Apteryx australis) is a species of kiwi from South Island of New Zealand. Until 2000 it was considered conspecific with the North Island brown kiwi, and still is by some authorities.

Key takeaways

Southern brown kiwi belongs to biology; place it in that map before memorising details.
Learn the definition first, then one example that makes the definition concrete.
Connect Southern brown kiwi to a quantity you can measure, compute or draw — that is where exam questions come from.
Reproduce the core statement of Southern brown kiwi from memory before moving on to harder problems.

Reference excerpt

The southern brown kiwi, tokoeka, or common kiwi (Apteryx australis) is a species of kiwi from South Island of New Zealand. Until 2000 it was considered conspecific with the North Island brown kiwi, and still is by some authorities.

Taxonomy Apteryx australis is based on Greek and Latin. Apteryx means "A-" without "pterux" wings, and "australis" from "auster" the south wind, and "-alis" relating to. The southern brown kiwi belongs to the kiwi family and it is a ratite, and a member of the order Apterygiformes. Like all ratites, its sternum has no keel, it is flightless, and it has a distinctive palate.

The holotype specimen of Apteryx australis Shaw is held in the collections of National Museums Liverpool at World Museum, with accession number NML-VZ D180. The specimen was collected by Captain Barclay at Dusky Sound, South Island, New Zealand and came to the Liverpool national collection via the 13th Earl of Derby's collection which was bequeathed to the people of Liverpool. The southern brown kiwi is divided into two subspecies, with some conservationists arguing for a third:

A. a. australis, the Fiordland tokoeka, with a population of approximately 15,000 birds is found on and near the Fiordland on the South Island of New Zealand. A disjunct population, near Haast, called the Haast tokoeka or Haast brown kiwi (not to be confused with Apteryx haastii), is rare (with only about 350 specimens left) and is characterised by its rufous plumage. A. a. lawryi, the Stewart Island tokoeka, is relatively common (20,000 birds) throughout its range, with about 17 birds per square kilometre. Its feathers are streaked lengthwise with reddish brown. A specimen described as Apteryx occidentalis in 1893 is often considered a junior synonym of Apteryx owenii, but a study in 2002 indicated this may be a hybrid between Apteryx australis and Apteryx owenii.

Description It has no preen gland, and its feathers have no aftershafts and no barbules. There are large vibrissae around its gape, and it has no tail, only a pygostyle. This species has a length of 45 to 55 cm (18–22 in) and the female weighs 2.1 to 3.9 kg (4.6–8.6 lb) and the male weighs 1.6 to 2.8 kg (3.5–6.2 lb). Its bill is long and slender with a slight down-curve. Like other kiwis it is nocturnal. The colour of its plumage is rufous with some streaking.

Behaviour

Vocalisation Southern brown kiwi communicate vocally to aid in defending their territory. They will also sing duets with each other, with the male shrill "kee-wee" or "kee-kee" and the females hoarse "kurr kurr". Males are more vocal and they both call in an upright position with their legs stretched out and their bill pointing up.

Diet

The southern brown kiwi has a long slender bill with lateral nostrils at the tip, which helps give them their keen sense of smell. They utilise this, more than sight and sound, to forage in dirt for invertebrates, including earthworms, beetle larvae, snails, crayfish, spiders, centipedes, and orthoptera, as well as eels and amphibians. Its gizzard is weak, and underutilised due to the lack of plant matter. Its caeca are long and narrow and aid in digestion.

Reproduction

The southern brown kiwi, like all kiwi, has two functioning ovaries, however only the left oviduct functions, allowing eggs from both ovaries to pass through. It is a monogamous species and once paired up, they will defend their territories with warning calls. The size of their territory is between 4.9 and 43 hectares (12 and 106 acres). Nests are made in burrows, or sheltered beneath thick vegetation. The female lays 1–3 eggs, typically just one, which is incubated for 75–90 days. These eggs are large, representing 14–20% of the female's body mass, weighing 430 g (0.95 lb) and measuring 11.5–13.7 cm (4.5–5.4 in) in length and 7–8.3 cm (2.8–3.3 in) in width. After a few days the chick will exit the nest and feed on its own, although it may stay around parents for a year. When not incubating eggs, they roost alone in sheltered places at ground level.

Range and habitat

Southern brown kiwi live in the South Island and Stewart Island. On the mainland (South Island) they live in Fiordland and Westland. Their range is temperate and sub-tropical forests, grassland, and shrubland, the denser the better. They are widespread throughout Stewart Island where they also live on the sand dunes.

Conservation In 2000, after being recognised by IUCN, they were placed in the Vulnerable status group. They have an occurrence range of 9,800 km2 (3,800 sq mi) and population of 27,000 was estimated in 1996. Brush-tailed possums, Trichosurus vulpecula, and stoats, Mustela erminea, will eat the eggs, while stoats and cats will eat chicks and juveniles. Adults are also under threat as dogs, ferrets, and brush-tailed possums, attack them and the juveniles. The Stewart Island population is stable due to the lack of these predators, however stoats may have colonised the island in 2000. In 2018 a drought caused a poor breeding season for Haast tokoeka and killed three chicks; six were airlifted to Orokonui Ecosanctuary near Dunedin, and then on to a "creche" on Rona Island in Lake Manapouri, Fiordland.

Footnotes

References BirdLife International (2016). "Southern Brown Kiwi – BirdLife Species Factsheet". Data Zone. Retrieved 22 May 2016. Brands, Sheila (14 August 2008). "Systema Naturae 2000 / Classification, Apteryx australis". Project: The Taxonomicon. Retrieved 4 February 2009. Davies, S.J.J.F. (2003). "Kiwis". In Hutchins, Michael (ed.). Grzimek's Animal Life Encyclopedia. Vol. 8 (2nd ed.). Farmington Hills, MI: Gale Group. pp. 89–92. ISBN 0-7876-5784-0. Gotch, A.F. (1995) [1979]. "Kiwis". Latin Names Explained. A Guide to the Scientific Classifications of Reptiles, Birds & Mammals. London: Facts on File. p. 180. ISBN 0-8160-3377-3. Save the Kiwi (2008). "Population status of the Tokoeka Kiwi". Save the Kiwi. Archived from the original on 26 May 2009. Retrieved 9 July 2009.

External links

View the aptMan1 genome assembly in the UCSC Genome Browser

Illustrations

Worked examples

Example 1 — a first encounter with Southern brown kiwi

Start with the simplest possible case. Write down what Southern brown kiwi claims or describes in one sentence, then invent the smallest concrete situation in which that sentence is true. In biology, the smallest case is usually a single object, a single equation or a single measurement. Check that every symbol or term in your sentence has a meaning in that case.

Example 2 — changing one variable

Take the situation from Example 1 and change exactly one quantity: double it, halve it, or set it to zero. Predict what should happen to Southern brown kiwi before you calculate. Comparing your prediction with the result is the fastest way to find out whether you understand the idea or only the words.

Example 3 — an exam-style question

Typical questions about Southern brown kiwi ask you to (a) state it precisely, (b) apply it to given data, and (c) explain a limitation. Practise writing all three answers in under five minutes; the third part is what separates a full-mark answer from an average one.

Applications of Southern brown kiwi

In research: Southern brown kiwi appears in biology research whenever the underlying quantities have to be modelled precisely. Papers usually cite it as a starting assumption and then explore where it breaks down.
In technology and industry: Engineering practice reuses Southern brown kiwi in design rules, simulations and safety margins. Knowing the idea lets you read a specification sheet and understand why the numbers look the way they do.
In the classroom: Southern brown kiwi is common in secondary-school and first-year university syllabi. It links to neighbouring topics Apteryx, Birds described in 1813, Birds of the South Island, so understanding it makes those chapters shorter.
In everyday life: Look for Southern brown kiwi outside the textbook — in sport, cooking, traffic, electronics or the sky above you. An example you found yourself is remembered far longer than one you were given.

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How to study Southern brown kiwi in 20 minutes

Read the reference excerpt below once, without taking notes.
Close the page and write down what Southern brown kiwi means in your own words.
Compare your version with the excerpt and mark what you missed.
Work through the three examples above with pen and paper.
Explain Southern brown kiwi out loud to somebody else — or to Teacher Smith in the lgStudy chat.

Frequently asked questions

What is Southern brown kiwi in simple terms?

Why does Southern brown kiwi matter?

Because it connects several biology ideas at once: it gives you a definition you can apply, a quantity you can calculate, and a way to check whether a result is plausible.

How should I study Southern brown kiwi?

Read the excerpt, restate it from memory, then work through the examples and applications listed on this page. The five-step study plan above takes about twenty minutes.

What does this page cover?

It gives you a compact reference excerpt plus original lgStudy explanations, examples, applications and study material on Southern brown kiwi.