Splitting, also called binary thinking, dichotomous thinking, black-and-white thinking, all-or-nothing thinking, or thinking in extremes, is the failure in a person's thinking to bring together the dichotomy of both perceived positive and negative qualities of something into a cohesive, realistic whole. It is a common defense mechanism, wherein the individual tends to think in extremes (e.g., an individual's actions and motivations are all good or all bad with no middle ground). This kind of dichotomous interpretation is contrasted by an acknowledgement of certain nuances known as "shades of gray". Splitting can include different contexts, as individuals who use this defense mechanism may "split" representations of their own mind, of their own personality, and of others. Splitting is observed in personality disorders belonging to cluster B, such as borderline personality disorder and narcissistic personality disorder, as well as schizophrenia and depression. In dissociative identity disorder, the term splitting is used to refer to a split in personality alter-egos.
History Splitting was first described by Ronald Fairbairn in his formulation of object relations theory in 1952; it begins as the inability of the infant to combine the fulfilling aspects of the parents (the good object) and their unresponsive aspects (the unsatisfying object) into the same individuals, instead seeing the good and bad as separate. In psychoanalytic theory this functions as a defense mechanism. Splitting was also described by Hyppolyte Taine in 1878 who described splitting as a splitting of the ego. He described this as the existence of two thoughts, wills, distinct actions simultaneously within an individual who is aware of one mind without the awareness of the other.
Mechanism Splitting people, ideas, and things into categories of either good or bad can be typically seen in childhood development, but "is expected to recede once the child has developed the capacity to understand primary caretakers as simultaneously possessing both good and bad qualities." The individual will often perceive something that contradicts with their image of themselves or a person close to them as a rejection or slight, a perceived attempt to isolate or abandon them, or even a feeling of unwanted attraction. Psychoanalytic theories propose the idea that idealization and devaluation means there is polarization in not only an individual's model of self, but their perceived view of others as well. Individuals with borderline personality disorder have been shown to interpret social acceptance as subterfuge or deception. They have also been shown to be less sensitive to verbal irony due to a negative bias in interpreting ambiguous information. Individuals diagnosed with borderline personality disorder may also believe that they will be abandoned if they trust anyone around them. Such an individual will feel challenged by this discomfort as it relates to their self-perception and will form a narrative to explain and externalize the perceived discomfort, making it wholly the fault of another. Proneness to rejection hypersensitivity, problems in establishing and maintaining consistent and appropriate levels of trust in interpersonal relationships, and frequent misinterpretation of social signals contribute greatly to such an individual's ability to find supporting "evidence" for their devaluation process. This can be exacerbated in times of professional or personal stress. Splitting can also result in dispositional and situational attributes of others' actions. This means that both a liked person's good behavior and an unliked person's bad behavior are both dispositional attributes; however, a good person's bad behavior would be situational and attributed to symptoms like stress or intoxication. The individual will then devalue the person that they once idealised. Often then the splitting process becomes behavioral and the subject will often abruptly lash out or cut contact with the person that they now devalue, causing a great deal of inner group conflict and distress. In order to prevent perceived judgement from others, the subject will often engage in a stage of justification of their actions by convincing those around them of the validity of their claims that the devalued party is entirely bad and that they are purely a victim. With people with Cluster B personality disorders, this often involves the embellishment or invention of grievances that garner an emotional response from those around them that they feel matches their own distress at the situation. The more valuable the social bond they are trying to preserve or the higher their general need for social acceptance, the higher the probability that they engage in psychologically abusive behavior. This can cause intense psychological distress in the person they are devaluing and can be met by legal challenges of abuse or slander. Splitting also impacts self-esteem, as the dichotomous good or bad thinking is applied to an individual's own self image and how they perceive themselves.
Management For the loved ones of those with borderline personality disorder there are several seemingly contradictory factors to balance:
Privacy of the subject versus seeking external help Acknowledging the subject's emotions while not endorsing or encouraging their behavior Helping the subject navigate their episode while not protecting them from the consequences of their actions. The New England Personality Disorder Association recommends always involving the wider group in the discussion of issues, not responding to or ignoring threats or accusations (even if untrue) in the moment, and then discussing the episode in an open and realistic manner when the subject has calmed, and never protecting the subject from social or legal consequences of their actions. Certain difficulties arise from validating emotions and not endorsing the behavior of splitting, as the loved ones of the person with borderline personality disorder risks could become complicit in both the problematic behaviors themselves and their reinforcement. Examples provided by Gunderson and Berkowitz are:
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