Sugar is known in Japanese as satō (さとう) or simply tō. Although sugarcane entered Japan in the eighth century, sugar remained rare until sugarcane was reintroduced in the 16th century. Over the following centuries, sugar consumption and production, particularly in the late 19th century as Japan annexed Taiwan and new sugar processing technology was developed. In the 21st century, sugar features in much of the processed food consumed in Japan, but consumption remains low compared to other countries of similar economic development. Most sugar in Japan is made from the Saccharum officinarum sugarcane variety. White sugar is the most common, though brown is also sold. In Japan's south, craftspeople on Shikoku island make a type of sugar named wasanbon from local sugarcane. It has a slight fragrance and soft texture, characteristics which make it sought after by Japanese confectioners in making the confection higashi.
History
Early Cane sugar entered Japan in the eighth century. Over the following millennium, Japanese people consumed it rarely, and when they did, primarily as a medicine. Rather than sugar, when cooks desired sweet flavors they used sweeteners like honey, rice glucose, or syrups made from vines called amazuru, or sweet arrowroot. Sugar was prized, such that when the Buddhist priest Eisai (1141–1215) wrote of sugar, he described its flavor as not only the most exceptional example of sweetness, but the greatest flavor of all.
Reintroduction
By the time of the early sixteenth century, sweets in Japan contained little if any sugar. This began to change in the second half of the century, as European and Asian traders reintroduced cane sugar to Japan. Uptake was assisted by activity on the Ryukyu islands, where Chinese and Ryukyuan people established plantations and brought equipment that could process the ingredient. Simultaneously Spanish and Portuguese merchants and missionaries brought culinary information, introducing early versions of sugar-based desserts that persist in Japanese cuisine, such as the sponge cake castella and the hard candy konpeitō. With new knowledge, savory Buddhist dishes were remade as sugary sweets, and the confection wagashi was created by combining refined sugar with colorings and glutinous rice. Sugar was still used sparingly, but now held the status of a luxury. Despite the creation of the new sweets, most consumption remained medicinal. When it did feature in savory cuisine, it flavored vegetables and sukiyaki, and never tea. In 1609, Japan invaded the Ryukyu islands, capturing the sugar industry. In the 1630s, the Japanese government imposed the system of Sakoku, a period of semi-isolationism that signaled the end of Portuguese influence. Sugar, still coveted by the Japanese, entered Japan through Nagasaki, the only place where trade was permitted. Much supply came from Dutch traders, who were fond of sugar shipments for the ballast they provided their ships. Other sources of sugar later in this period included China for white sugar, and the Ryukyu islands for brown. The international sourcing of sugar lent a perception of foreignness to it and sweets made with it. From the Edo period late into the Meiji era, vendors donned costumes they thought Chinese and sold sweets on the street, chanting songs in a language they thought sounded Chinese. By the end of the 17th century, sweets made from sugar had become more widely consumed. Among the ruling elite, such sweets were eaten accompanying tea. These were made with imported sugar, by confectioners who controlled the supply. Brown sugar, sourced domestically was used by purveyors selling to a broad audience to make senbei. In the first half of the 18th century, Tokugawa Yoshimune promoted domestic production of sugar to reduce Japan's trade deficit, ordering that sugarcane be planted across Japan. By 1800 Japan was producing more sugar than it was importing. Some locations specialized in the sugars they produced, such as Okinawa and Amami Ōshima, which produced brown sugar, and the island of Shikoku, whose fine-grained sugar became known as wasanbon and gained favor among the elite for its use in making wagashi.
Wider adoption Sugar consumption grew across the 19th century, as workers in Japan developed the habit of tea breaks, creating demand for snacks that could be served as accompaniments. Increasingly, sugar made appearances in media and advertisements which had children and adults eating sugar, often featuring the trope of sweet peddlers crying out their promotions. For much of this period, confectioners operated their stores independently of each other, with little coordination. Despite a growth in consumption, Japan consumed less sugar than Western countries in the 19th century, and regarded Western sweets as with distaste, considering the smell of milk and butter off-putting. Consumption began to increase dramatically at the end of the 19th century as technological developments permitting more efficient sugar processing, and the acquisition of new sources of sugar were responsible. In 1885, the industry composition of small, independent manufacturers shifted, as the Meiji government instituted taxes on the sale and manufacture of confectionery based on the perception that confections contributed nothing meaningful to the economy or people's health. In response, confectioners rallied together, forming industry associations across regions and the country that could agitate for a common interest. In their advocacy, associations described nutritional benefits of milk and butter, and attested that "sugar helped digestion and warmed the body".
In 1895, Japan annexed Taiwan and began developing industry and importing its sugar. According to historian Kubo Fumikatsu, the potential outcomes of success or failure in establishing industry in Taiwan was assigned great importance within Japan, with perceived impacts on international reputation and the greater imperialism project. The business began operations in late 1900. By 1903, almost all of Japan's sugar came from Taiwan, and the average annual consumption had increased in estimates to 12 pounds (5.4 kg) per capita from 5 pounds in 1888.
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