Surat al-Ard (Arabic: صورة الأرض, lit. 'Chapter of the Earth'), also known as Al-Masalik wa-l-Mamalik (Arabic: المسالك والممالك, lit. 'Passages and kingdoms'), is a book on geography and travel written by the merchant traveler Abu'l-Qasim Muhammad Ibn Hawqal following his travels, which commenced in 331 AH. The work was influenced by Istakhri, who requested that he complete his Masalik and Mamalik. Nevertheless, he ultimately elected to compose a revised volume, drawing upon Istakhri's treatise and a compendium of other geographical works, in addition to his own empirical data and insights gleaned from his peregrinations. Consequently, the content of the book is meticulously presented. In addition to geographical information, the book contains a range of scientific and historical content, including biographical information. Some chapters are presented in the form of a tourist guide. Each region is discussed in detail, with a special map provided for each area. The book exists in multiple versions, each exhibiting distinctive characteristics. The initial manuscript included a dedication to Sayf al-Dawla al-Hamdani, while a second copy from 367 presented a critical analysis of the Hamdanids. Other versions demonstrate a pronounced proclivity towards the Fatimids. In his study, the orientalist Rizzitano posits that the final version of the book was written in 378 AH, following two attempts: one in 356 AH and the other in 357 AH. Nevertheless, there are those who posit that the final copy was produced subsequent to Ibn Hawqal's demise. The multiplicity of versions has resulted in a degree of variation among the extant manuscripts of the book. Consequently, there are numerous manuscripts distributed among various libraries in Istanbul, Leiden, Paris, and elsewhere. Additionally, the book has been published in multiple editions in various countries and has been translated into a number of languages, including English, French, Turkish, and others. These translations have been produced either in their entirety or in part.
The author
Abu'l-Qasim Muhammad Ibn Hawqal was an Arab Muslim writer, geographer, historian, traveler, and merchant who lived during the 10th century AD. His writings on geography contained original information gained from his extensive travels, which spanned over three decades. This unique insight distinguished him from his contemporaries and predecessors, whether in his theoretical contributions or in his cartographic representations, which he created with his own hands. In the words of Ibn al-Adim, he was described as follows: "He was a virtuous individual hailing from the Nusaybin region". In addition to his book Surat al-Ard, he has another book entitled Kitab Saqalia, which is currently considered lost. He also published an article on the history of the Jews and their festivals in Hyderabad in 1947. The dearth of available sources has resulted in a number of discrepancies regarding his life and work. For instance, there is a lack of consensus on the date of his birth, with some sources indicating that he was born in the fourth century AH, while others provide no specific date. Additionally, there is a divergence of opinions regarding the span of his travels. Some sources limit these to a mere 26 years between 331 and 357, while others extend them to nearly 32 years. There was considerable divergence of opinion regarding his loyalties and ideological and political leanings. Some held the view that he was a political advocate, while others alleged that he was engaged in espionage on behalf of the Fatimids. These views may be attributed to his association with the Qarmatians of Bahrain, his condemnation of the inhabitants of Sicily, and his remarks concerning Andalusia, which could be interpreted as encouragement for the Fatimids or Abbasids to intervene in the region. Furthermore, he presented the initial manuscript of his book to Sayf al-Dawla al-Hamdani. The subsequent edition of the book evinces a pronounced inclination towards the Sunni Samanids. The discrepancy in historical accounts regarding his allegiance may be attributed to the reliance of some historians on the Leiden and Oxford versions of the Sourat al-Ard, which exhibit a pronounced and discernible Fatimid bias. This bias is absent in the Paris version and the other five Istanbul versions. The date of his death is also a point of contention. Haji Khalifa asserted that he died in 350 A.H. Al-Babani, in Hidayat al-'Arifin, proposed that he died in Andalusia, while Tehrani, in a different source, stated that he died in 380 A.H.
Attribution of the book to Ibn Hawqal There is consensus among researchers and other historians and bibliographers regarding the attribution of the book to Ibn Hawqal. However, some of them have differing opinions regarding the nomenclature of the book. Al-Babani, Elian Sarkis, and Haji Khalifa, as well as Ibn Khallikan, attributed it to him in multiple instances within the Wafayyat al-Ayyan. Additionally, numerous Orientalists who translated or otherwise engaged with the text, including William Uziel, Kramers, Weit, and De Goeje, concurred with this attribution.
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