Taoism or Daoism ( , ) is a philosophical and religious tradition indigenous to China, emphasizing harmony with the Tao 道. With a range of meanings and interpretations in Chinese philosophy, translations of Tao include 'way', 'road', 'path', or 'technique', generally understood in the Taoist sense as an enigmatic process of transformation ultimately underlying reality. Taoist thought has informed the development of various practices within the Taoist tradition, including forms of meditation, astrology, qigong, feng shui, and internal alchemy. A common goal of Taoist practice is self-cultivation, a deeper appreciation of the Tao, and more harmonious existence. Taoist ethics generally emphasize virtues of effortless action (Wu wei), naturalness, simplicity, and the three treasures of compassion, frugality, and humility. Taoism is treated as a distinct tradition with its own scriptures, priestly lineages, and ritual systems, but it has long been closely intertwined with Chinese folk religion, and the boundary between them is often fluid in practice. The core of Taoist thought crystallized during the early Warring States period (c. 450 – c. 300 BCE), during which the epigrammatic Tao Te Ching and the anecdotal Zhuangzi—widely regarded as the fundamental texts of Taoist philosophy—were largely composed. They form the core of a body of Taoist writings accrued over the following centuries, which was assembled by monks into the Daozang canon starting in the 5th century CE. Early Taoism drew upon diverse influences, including the Shang and Zhou state religions, Naturalism, Mohism, Confucianism, various Legalist theories, as well as the I Ching and Spring and Autumn Annals. Taoism is frequently discussed in comparison with Confucianism, since both traditions profoundly influenced Chinese thought. Taoism was further influenced by Buddhism upon its introduction to China, with long-running discourses shared between Taoists and Buddhists. This mutual co-existence led to the emergence of Three Teachings discourse by the 6th century CE, which examined how the three traditions could be integrated harmoniously in Chinese society. Many Taoist denominations recognize deities, often ones shared with other traditions, which are venerated as superhuman figures exemplifying Taoist virtues. They can be roughly divided into two categories of "gods" and xian ("immortals"). Xian were immortal beings with vast supernatural powers, also describing a principled, moral person. Since Taoist thought is syncretic and deeply rooted in Chinese culture for millennia, it is often unclear which denominations should be considered "Taoist". The title daoshi ("Taoist master") is traditionally reserved for ordained clergy within Taoist organizations, who distinguish their formal traditions from those of Chinese folk religion. Though generally lacking motivation for strong hierarchies, Taoist philosophy has often served as a theoretical foundation for politics, warfare, and Taoist organizations. Taoist secret societies precipitated the Yellow Turban Rebellion during the late Han dynasty, attempting to create what has been characterized as a Taoist theocracy. Today, Taoism is one of five religious doctrines officially recognized by the Chinese government, also having official status in Hong Kong and Macau. It is considered a major religion in Taiwan, and also has significant populations of adherents throughout the Sinosphere and Southeast Asia. In the West, Taoism has taken on various forms, both those keeping to historical practice, as well as highly synthesized practices variously characterized as new religious movements.
Terminology
Spelling and pronunciation
"Tao" and "Dao" are different romanized spellings of the same Chinese word: 道.
"Tao" is the romanized spelling in the Wade–Giles system, which was predominant in English-speaking countries until the late 20th century, and remains in use for certain terms with strongly established spellings. "Dao" is the romanized spelling in the Hanyu Pinyin system, officially adopted in China in the 1950s and the Library of Congress in 2000, which has largely replaced Wade–Giles romanization in academic sources. The Standard Chinese pronunciation of 道 is /tau̯˥˨/. Neither an English pronunciation like /daʊ/ (an English pronunciation of "Dao") nor an English pronunciation like /tʰaʊ/ (an English pronunciation of "Tao") is the same as the Standard Chinese pronunciation of 道, whose initial consonant is neither voiced nor aspirated. One authority calls the pronunciation with a ⟨t⟩ as in "tie" (with a /tʰ/) to be a "mispronunciation" originally caused by the "clumsy Wade–Giles system", which misled most readers. Standard Chinese phonology does not have the same sound inventory as English phonology; the Wade–Giles romanization system provides spellings in the Latin alphabet, but they are not meant to indicate an exact English pronunciation in the same way as though they were English words.
Classification as philosophy and religion
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