Tapioca (; Portuguese: [tapiˈɔkɐ]) is a starch extracted from the tubers of the cassava plant (Manihot esculenta, also known as manioc), a species native to the North and Northeast regions of Brazil, but which is now found in West Africa, Southeast Asia, and elsewhere. It is a perennial shrub adapted to the hot conditions of tropical lowlands. Cassava copes better with poor soils than many other food plants. Tapioca is a staple food for millions of people in tropical countries. It provides only carbohydrate food value and is low in protein, vitamins, and minerals. In other countries, it is used as a thickening agent in various manufactured foods.
Etymology
The word "tapioca" is derived from tipi'óka, its name in the Tupi language spoken by natives when the Portuguese first arrived in the Northeast Region of Brazil around 1500. This Tupi word is translated as "sediment" or "coagulant" and refers to the curd-like starch sediment that is obtained in the extraction process.
Production
Establishment The cassava plant is easily established by cutting, according to the NRCS: "Propagate cassava by planting segments of the stem. Cut stems into 9-30 cm lengths; be sure to include at least one node. Segments can be buried vertically with 8-15 cm in the ground. The selection of healthy, pest-free cuttings is essential. Stem cuttings are sometimes referred to as "stakes". In areas where freezing temperatures are possible, plant cuttings as soon as the danger of frost has passed. Cuttings can be planted by hand or by planting machines. Hand planting is done in one of three ways - vertical, flat below the soil surface, or tilted. Under low rainfall conditions, vertical planting may result in the desiccation of the cuttings, while in areas of higher rainfall, flat-planted cuttings may rot. In general, flat planting 5–10 cm below the soil surface is recommended in dry climates and when mechanical planting is used. Germination seems to be higher; tubers tend to originate from a great number of points and grow closer to the surface of the soil, making better use of fertilizers applied on the surface and also making harvesting easier." The cassava plant can also be established from seed, although this is not advised, as seed germination rate is usually less than 50%. Because of this, seedlings are normally only used for breeding.
Management Cassava cuttings start growing roots within just a few days, and new shoots sprout from where the old leaves were attached to the stem. At first, growth is slow, so keeping weeds under control during the early months is important. Cassava grows best in light, sandy-loam or loamy-sand soils that are deep, fertile, and retain moisture. It can also be cultivated successfully in a wide range of soils, from sandy to clayey textures, and in areas with relatively low soil fertility. Cassava is capable of producing economic yields on land that has been depleted by repeated cultivation and is unsuitable for most other crops. The crop generally performs well as long as the soil is friable enough to allow the tubers to expand properly. When cassava is cultivated on newly cleared forest land, little preparation beyond clearing existing vegetation is required. When grown after other crops, cassava can often be planted immediately following harvest, although in some cases, the soil is plowed two or three times to remove grass and weeds. Fertilization is generally unnecessary on newly cleared land or when sufficient land is available for rotational cultivation. Cassava, though, is a fast-growing crop that depletes soil nutrients rapidly. Continuous cultivation without nutrient replacement can result in declining soil fertility. Commercial producers often restore soil nutrients through the application of synthetic fertilizers, while smallholder farmers commonly use organic manures such as cattle dung, duck manure, or composted household waste to maintain soil productivity.
Harvest Cassava does not have a clearly defined stage of maturity and can be harvested whenever the storage roots reach a desirable size for consumption or processing. For food use, harvesting generally occurs between 8 and 12 months after planting. In most tropical regions, cassava can be harvested about eight months after planting, though under less favorable conditions, such as cooler or drier climates, 18 months or more may be needed to reach harvestable size. Cassava plants may remain unharvested for more than one growing season, allowing the roots to enlarge further, but older roots often become fibrous and woody, reducing their edibility and starch content. Harvesting is usually performed manually by loosening the soil and pulling up the roots, although mechanical harvesting may be used in commercial operations. Under optimal conditions, yields of fresh roots can reach up to 90 tonnes per hectare, while global averages, largely from smallholder systems, are around 10 tonnes per hectare.
Preparation The cassava plant has either red or green branches with blue spindles on them. The root of the green-branched variant requires treatment to remove linamarin, a cyanogenic glycoside occurring naturally in the plant, which otherwise may be converted into cyanide. Konzo (also called mantakassa) is a paralytic disease associated with several weeks of almost exclusive consumption of insufficiently processed bitter cassava. In Brazil's north and northeast, traditional community-based tapioca production is a byproduct of manioc flour production from cassava roots. In this process, the manioc (after treatment to remove toxicity) is ground to a pulp with a small hand- or diesel-powered mill. This masa is then squeezed to dry it out. The wet masa is placed in a long, woven tube called a tipiti. The top of the tube is secured, while a large branch or lever is inserted into a loop at the bottom and used to stretch the entire implement vertically, squeezing a starch-rich liquid out through the weave and ends. This liquid is collected, and the microscopic starch grains in it are allowed to settle into the bottom of the container. The supernatant liquid is then poured off, leaving behind a wet starch sediment that needs to be dried and results in the fine-grained tapioca starch powder similar in appearance to corn starch.
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