The Lagash–Umma border conflict is the earliest well-documented case of a war between states. It took place in Sumer during the Early Dynastic III period (2600–2350 BCE), a period characterized by the division of the region into numerous city-states. The war is documented mainly by inscriptions from the city-state of Lagash, describing how Umma allegedly infringed on an old border treaty regarding a fertile piece of land coveted by both states. The intermittent conflict between the two polities lasted for generations. The reigns of Eannatum and Enmetena saw several victories of Lagash, while Umma prevailed over its neighbour under the leadership of Lugalzagesi, who later ruled Uruk. Lugalzagesi's military offensives against Lagash led to the fall of the city, and Urukagina (ruler of Lagash) only retained control of a reduced territory centered on Ĝirsu. Lugalzagesi claimed control over all of Sumer and adopted the title "king of the land." His victory was contextualized by the emergence of new traditions of kingship and ideas about the political unification of the region. Lugalzagesi was himself defeated by Sargon of Akkad, who conquered all of Sumer and integrated it as part of his own kingdom, proclaiming the city of Akkad as its central point.
Origins of the Conflict The border conflict between Lagash and Umma is merely one example of local rivalry in Early Dynastic III Southern Mesopotamia. During this period, the region was characterized by dense, rapid urbanization and the competition between neighbouring polities for fertile land and water. The conflict centered on a contested strip of agricultural land, the Gu'edena ("The Edge of the Plains"). Since most textual sources about this conflict come from Lagash, that bias makes it difficult to determine the ultimate cause of the war. The feud was already active during the reign of Mesilim, King of Kish, who acted as an arbiter and demarcated a border between the two polities. The relations between Umma and Lagash remained tense, however, and fighting would erupt multiple times over the following generations. The sources that document the conflict are royal inscriptions written in Sumerian in clay and stone. The uses of these sources were varied, including: public display on monuments; commemorating the construction of foundations or the walls of the buildings; and inscription on votive objects intended for deities. Some of the tablets have obscure origins, perhaps due to the archaeological techniques used at the time of their unearthing. In the absence of more evidence from outside of Lagash, they allow for a reconstruction of the Lagashite historical tradition surrounding the conflict.
Background
In Late Early Dynastic Sumer, most city-states were formed by the union of several previously independent cities, often of similar sizes. The state of Umma incorporated the urban centers at Tell Jokha, Umm al-Aqarib, and Tell Izbekh (Zabalam). Lagash was composed of Lagash proper (al-Hiba), the cities of Ĝirsu (Tello) and Niĝin (Tell Zurghul), as well as the seaport of Gu'abba. While Lagash was the name of the kingdom and this city was likely its original center, in the Early Dynastic IIIa the capital was Ĝirsu, and its tutelary god, Ninĝirsu, was the chief god of the local pantheon. In the Sumerian city states, the land was conceptualized as the private property of the gods, and the ruler as the land's administrator. The border between Lagash and Umma was regarded as having a divine origin. The inscription on the Cone of Enmetena described how Enlil, the chief god of the Sumerian pantheon, had divided the land between the chief god of Lagash, Ninĝirsu, and the chief god of Umma, Shara. The gods were envisioned as active participants in the conflict. The Gue'dena was regarded by the rulers of Lagash as the property of Ninĝirsu, and the retrieval of the disputed territory was portrayed as a divine mission. Ninĝirsu was described by multiple inscriptions as intervening directly on the battlefield in the Lagashite rulers' favour.
History
Mediation of Mesilim and early attestations of conflict The conflict might have already begun in the Early Dynastic III period. Mesilim, a 26th century BCE king of Kish, demarcated the border between Lagash and Umma. In later Lagashite inscriptions, Mesilim's judgement is repeatedly mentioned in order to portray Umma as a trespasser. The inscription on a mace-head dedicated to Ninĝirsu by Mesilim names Lugal-shaengur as his contemporary and the ruler of Lagash. Ur-Nanshe is likely the first ruler of Lagash for whom a substantial number of royal inscriptions were created. He reigned circa 2500-2450 BCE. His inscriptions record his victories in battle over the city-states of Umma and Ur, and the capture of the ruler of Umma, Pabilgagaltuku.
Victories of Eannatum and Enmetena
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