Numerous experiments which were performed on human test subjects in the United States in the past are now considered to have been unethical, because they were performed without the knowledge or informed consent of the test subjects. Such tests have been performed throughout American history, but have become significantly less frequent with the advent and adoption of various safeguarding efforts. Despite these safeguards, unethical experimentation involving human subjects is still occasionally uncovered. Past examples of unethical experiments include the exposure of humans to chemical and biological weapons (including infections with deadly or debilitating diseases), human radiation experiments, injections of toxic and radioactive chemicals, surgical experiments, interrogation and torture experiments, tests which involve mind-altering substances, and a wide variety of other experiments. Many of these tests are performed on children, the sick, and mentally disabled individuals, often under the guise of "medical treatment". In many of the studies, a large portion of the subjects were poor, racial minorities, or prisoners. Many of these experiments violated US law even at the time and were in some cases directly sponsored by government agencies or rogue elements thereof, including the Centers for Disease Control, the United States military, and the Central Intelligence Agency; and in other cases were sponsored by private corporations which were involved in military activities. The human research programs were usually highly secretive and performed without the knowledge or authorization of Congress, and in many cases information about them was not released until many years after the studies had been performed. The ethical, professional, and legal implications of this in the United States medical and scientific community were quite significant and led to many institutions and policies that attempted to ensure that future human subject research in the United States would be ethical and legal. Public outrage in the late 20th century over the discovery of government experiments on human subjects led to numerous congressional investigations and hearings, including the Church Committee and Rockefeller Commission, both of 1975, and the 1994 Advisory Committee on Human Radiation Experiments, among others.
Surgical experiments Throughout the 1840s, J. Marion Sims, who is often referred to as "the father of gynecology," performed surgical experiments on infants, enslaved African women, and girls as young as 13 without anesthesia to treat conditions including vesicovaginal fistula, neonatal tetanus, and other similar conditions. Slaveowners were willing to negotiate with Sims for access to these women due to their fertility's economic value if cured. The patients—one of whom was operated on 30 times—suffered from infections and many failed surgeries before they were cured of vaginal fistula. The period between 1845 and 1849 during which Sims operated on enslaved women was one during which the new practice of anesthesia was not universally accepted as safe and effective. While Sims did not use anesthesia in the experiments he performed on enslaved women, he later used it on white female patients. In 1874, Irish servant Mary Rafferty came to Roberts Bartholow of the Good Samaritan Hospital in Cincinnati, Ohio for treatment of a head lesion. The lesion was diagnosed as a cancerous ulcer and surgical treatments were attempted. Bartholow saw Rafferty's condition as terminal but felt there was a research opportunity. With no intention of treating her, he inserted electrode needles into her exposed brain matter to gauge her responses. Although Rafferty came out of the coma caused by the experiment three days later, she died from a massive seizure the following day. Bartholow described his experiment as follows:
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