The principle of a fuel cell was discovered by Christian Friedrich Schönbein in 1838, and the first fuel cell was constructed by Sir William Robert Grove in 1839. The fuel cells made at this time were most similar to today's phosphoric acid fuel cells. Most hydrogen fuel cells today are of the proton exchange membrane (PEM) type. A PEM converts the chemical energy released during the electrochemical reaction of hydrogen and oxygen into electrical energy. The Hydrogen Research, Development, and Demonstration Act of 1990 and Energy Policy Act of 1992 were the first national legislative articles that called for large-scale hydrogen demonstration, development, and research programs. A five-year program was conducted that investigated the production of hydrogen from renewable energy sources and the feasibility of existing natural gas pipelines to carry hydrogen. It also called for the research into hydrogen storage systems for electric vehicles and the development of fuel cells suitable to power an electric motor vehicle.
Applications Hydrogen is an energy carrier and can be used to store and deliver energy as needed. When used in a fuel cell, the hydrogen atom dissociates into a positively charged hydrogen ion and a negatively charged electron which is diverted to an electric load. A fuel cell can be used to power anything in much the same way that batteries are used. According to the U.S. Department of Energy, "Eventually hydrogen will join electricity as the major energy carrier, supplying every end-use energy need in the economy, including transportation, central and distributed electric power, portable power, and combined heat and power for buildings and industrial processes."
Vehicles Hydrogen fuel cell vehicles were in the pre-production stage of development for many years before being commercialized. While prototype hydrogen vehicles exist worldwide, there are limited consumer-level vehicles available for purchase off the lot. The Toyota Mirai was the first fuel cell car to be available for sale in December 2014. The Honda FCX Clarity was also available to consumers for lease in the Torrance, Santa Monica, and Irvine areas of California for $600/month. Hyundai started selling their fuel cell Nexo in Korea in 2018 and began selling them in California in 2019. Cars are typically refilled with a couple of kilograms over 5–10 minutes. One vehicular application for hydrogen fuel cells is forklift fleets in manufacturing facilities or distribution centers. Forklifts are not allowed to burn gasoline or diesel fuel inside factories, since the fumes present health hazards, so most indoor fleets rely on batteries. Hydrogen tanks can be refilled faster than charging batteries. A hydrogen fuel cell can be refilled in several minutes. By 2013, there were more than 4,000 fuel cell forklifts in the US. As of 2024, approximately 50,000 hydrogen forklifts are in operation worldwide (the bulk of which are in the U.S.), as compared with 1.2 million battery electric forklifts that were purchased in 2021.
Stationary power Hydrogen fuel cells also have the potential to replace or supplement utility-bought electricity by supplying energy on-site in the form of a stationary power device. Major corporations like eBay, Google, Wal-Mart, Coca-Cola, FedEx, Adobe and Sierra Nevada have been using some form of fuel cells for several years and are reporting hundreds of thousands of dollars' worth of energy savings every year.
Research and development funding The George W. Bush administration showed much interest in developing hydrogen fuel cell technologies within the transportation sector. This interest was mainly driven by the desire to decrease the United States' dependence on foreign oil and reduce the environmental impact of the transportation sector. The initiative to promote fuel cell technology was announced by former President Bush in his State of the Union Address in 2003. Former President Bush stated: "With a new national commitment, our scientists and engineers will overcome obstacles ... so that the first car driven by a child born today could be powered by hydrogen, and pollution-free. Join me in this important innovation to make our air significantly cleaner, and our country much less dependent on foreign sources of energy." Along with this new national commitment, a Hydrogen Posture Plan was created to begin to map the future of hydrogen technology research, development and demonstration. To accelerate research, development, and demonstration former President Bush announced plans to appropriate $1.2 billion. On May 11, 2009 President Barack Obama effectively reduced funds and the Bush Administrations' attempt to advance fuel cell vehicle technology and commercialization at a fast pace. The elimination of this appropriation of funds was said to have saved $100 million per year. Department of Energy Secretary Steven Chu said the technology and improvements necessary for deployment of fuel cell vehicles were most likely to not be commercially ready or economically viable after 10 to 15 years of research and development. A more detailed table of public hydrogen research and development funding is provided by the Department of Energy: Hydrogen Program.
Federal support for hydrogen and fuel-cell R&D
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