Venetian ceruse

Venetian ceruse or Venetian white, also known as blanc de céruse de Venise and Spirits of Saturn, was a 16th-century cosmetic used as a skin whitener. It was in great demand and considered the best available at the time, supposedly containing the best quality white lead sourced from Venice, the global merchant capital at the time. It is similar to the regular ceruse, although it was marketed as better, more exclusive, and more expensive than the regular ceruse variant. The regular ceruse white pigment is a basic lead carbonate of chemical formula 2 PbCO3·Pb(OH)2, while the mineral cerussite is a simple carbonate of lead (PbCO3). A recipe from 1688 described the cosmetic as a mixture of water, vinegar, and lead. The cosmetic's use of white lead as a pigment was detrimental to the human body and caused lead poisoning, skin damage, hair loss and in some cases eventual death.

Users Venetian ceruse was the most expensive and highly sought-after form of ceruse, making it almost exclusive to high status individuals or the wealthy class. It was favoured by the European aristocracy due to its high quality and, most notably, was thought to have been used very frequently by Elizabeth I of England. However some sources state that she may only have been a possible user of Venetian ceruse, and critics including Anna Riehl and Kate Maltby have argued that little historical evidence exists to support the claim that Elizabeth used ceruse. It was thought that Elizabeth I's death may have been caused by chronic lead poisoning and the combined use of other dangerous chemicals present in her cosmetics, such as mercury and arsenic. Ceruse was also blamed for the death of an 18th-century London socialite, Maria Coventry, Countess of Coventry, in 1760. Coventry had been a frequent user of ceruse, and is believed to have died of lead poisoning at age 27 as a result of her faithful use of the cosmetic product. The general public referred to her as "Death by Vanity". Another devout user of Venetian ceruse was Isabella d'Este, whose appearance demonstrated how ceruse caused permanent damage and premature ageing. In 1534, an account by Pietro Aretino described her "smeared face" as "dishonestly ugly and even more dishonestly made up." Although Venetian ceruse was certainly predominantly used by women, it was also thought to have been used by some men in royalty during the 16th century. A light skin complexion was sought after by men as it became a symbol of aristocracy, and suggested that the individual did not have to engage in labour work outdoors that would tan their skin.

Ceruse variants Variants of ceruse differ based on their proportions of lead carbonate and white lead. Some sources state that Venetian ceruse was almost identical to regular ceruse, however due to its origins in Venice it was able to be marketed as the best available product on the market. Other sources state that there were marked differences between the two variants of ceruse. In contrast to regular ceruse, Venetian ceruse was said to be made from pure white lead that was more intense and concentrated in its form. Due to the high demand of ceruse sourced straight from Venice, there may have been counterfeit items for sale on the market. The disingenuous ceruse was thought to contain a mixture of chalk or whiting, which compromised the whiteness, brittleness and weight in comparison to Venetian ceruse.

Chemistry and manufacture

Chemical composition

The primary active ingredient in Venetian ceruse was white lead (PbCO3·Pb(OH)2) also known as hydrocerrusite, which is a hydrate form of cerrusite. Cerrusite is also known as the heavy metal, lead carbonate (PbCO3), which encourages skin depigmentation. Apart from its adverse health effects on the human body, white lead had many qualities that made it a valuable ingredient for use in various cosmetic products during the 16th century. Its opaque nature made it an ideal product for concealing imperfections on the skin's surface. The presence of lead compounds in Venetian ceruse allowed it to be dissolved in water to form a thick paste that could be easily absorbed by the body through the skin. When mixed with vinegar, the white lead composition of Venetian ceruse had a cooling and drying effect that would suck moisture from the skin of the individual's face and prevent inflammation. Therefore, ceruse was also commonly used for medicinal purposes by surgeons in the 16th century to dry up moist sores. White lead was not only used in Venetian ceruse, but also several other 16th century cosmetics. It was contained in blush products for application on the cheeks and used in lip stains by combining red pigments such as vermilion or sandalwood and cinnabar, which contained more harmful compounds such as mercury sulphide.

Manufacture The process of manufacturing Venetian ceruse involved carefully placing lead sheets into clay pots partially filled with vinegar. The pots were then sealed with lead lids or packed straw and kept aside for several weeks, allowing lead acetate to form and produce lead carbonate once eventually exposed to air. The white lead present in ceruse originated from various locations around Europe, however Italy was the major manufacturer of corrosives and had been exporting ceruse since the 14th century. Following the powerful influence of the Venetian Renaissance, Venice quickly became a major merchant and fashion capital during the late Middle Ages and the Renaissance. It was well known for its high-quality luxury goods available at lower prices and played a significant role in the pigment trade. The white lead present in ceruse was the same compound used in cosmetic products, in medications, and by artists to paint with on canvas. As such, the quality and purity of the ceruse was very important to the user. Some sources state that Venetian ceruse was much more expensive than regular ceruse due to its higher purity and refinement, selling for up to twice as much as regular lead white.

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