A voltage-controlled oscillator (VCO) is an electronic oscillator whose oscillation frequency is controlled by a voltage input. The applied input voltage determines the instantaneous oscillation frequency. Consequently, a VCO can be used for frequency modulation (FM) or phase modulation (PM) by applying a modulating signal to the control input. A VCO is also an integral part of a phase-locked loop. VCOs are used in synthesizers to generate a waveform whose pitch can be adjusted by a voltage determined by a musical keyboard or other input. A voltage-to-frequency converter (VFC) is a VCO which has a very linear transfer function (i.e., the ratio of output frequency to input voltage is nearly constant) over a wide range of input control voltages.
Types VCOs can be generally categorized into two groups based on the type of waveform produced.
Linear or harmonic oscillators generate a sinusoidal waveform. Harmonic oscillators in electronics usually consist of a resonator with an amplifier that replaces the resonator losses (to prevent the amplitude from decaying) and isolates the resonator from the output (so the load does not affect the resonator). Some examples of harmonic oscillators are LC oscillators and crystal oscillators. Relaxation oscillators can generate a sawtooth or triangular waveform. They are commonly used in integrated circuits (ICs). They can provide a wide range of operational frequencies with a minimal number of external components.
Frequency control
A voltage-controlled capacitor is one method of making an LC oscillator vary its frequency in response to a control voltage. Any reverse-biased semiconductor diode displays a measure of voltage-dependent capacitance and can be used to change the frequency of an oscillator by varying a control voltage applied to the diode. Special-purpose variable-capacitance varactor diodes are available with well-characterized, wide-ranging values of capacitance. A varactor is used to change the capacitance (and hence the frequency) of an LC tank. A varactor can also change the loading on a crystal resonator and pull its resonant frequency. The same effect occurs with bipolar transistors, as described by Donald E. Thomas at Bell Labs in 1954: with a tank circuit connected to the collector and the modulating audio signal applied between the emitter and the base, a single-transistor FM transmitter is created. Thomas worked with a point-contact transistor, but the effect also works in junction transistors; applications include wireless microphones such as that patented by Raymond A. Litke in 1964. For low-frequency VCOs, other methods of varying the frequency (such as altering the charging rate of a capacitor by means of a voltage-controlled current source) are used (see function generator). The frequency of a ring oscillator is controlled by varying either the supply voltage, the current available to each inverter stage, or the capacitive loading on each stage.
Phase-domain equations VCOs are used in analog applications such as frequency modulation and frequency-shift keying. The functional relationship between the control voltage and the output frequency for a VCO (especially those used at radio frequency) may not be linear, but over small ranges, the relationship is approximately linear, and linear control theory can be used. A voltage-to-frequency converter (VFC) is a special type of VCO designed to be very linear over a wide range of input voltages. Modeling for VCOs is often not concerned with the amplitude or shape (sinewave, triangle wave, sawtooth) but rather its instantaneous phase. In effect, the focus is not on the time-domain signal A sin(ωt+θ0) but rather the argument of the sine function (the phase). Consequently, modeling is often done in the phase domain. The instantaneous frequency of a VCO is often modeled as a linear relationship with its instantaneous control voltage. The output phase of the oscillator is the integral of the instantaneous frequency.
f ( t ) = f 0 + K 0 ⋅ v in ( t ) θ ( t ) = ∫ − ∞ t f ( τ ) d τ {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}f(t)&=f_{0}+K_{0}\cdot \ v_{\text{in}}(t)\\\theta (t)&=\int _{-\infty }^{t}f(\tau )\,d\tau \\\end{aligned}}}
f ( t ) {\displaystyle f(t)} is the instantaneous frequency of the oscillator at time t (not the waveform amplitude)
f 0 {\displaystyle f_{0}} is the quiescent frequency of the oscillator (not the waveform amplitude)
K 0 {\displaystyle K_{0}} is called the oscillator sensitivity, or gain. Its units are hertz per volt.
f ( τ ) {\displaystyle f(\tau )} is the VCO's frequency
θ ( t ) {\displaystyle \theta (t)} is the VCO's output phase
v in ( t ) {\displaystyle v_{\text{in}}(t)} is the time-domain control input or tuning voltage of the VCO For analyzing a control system, the Laplace transforms of the above signals are useful.
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