A zeitgeber ( (T)SYTE-gay-bər, ZYTE-, German: [ˈtsaɪtˌɡeːbɐ]) is any external or environmental cue that entrains or synchronizes an organism's biological rhythms, usually naturally occurring and serving to entrain to the Earth's 24-hour light/dark and 12-month cycles.
History The term Zeitgeber (lit. 'time giver') was first used by Jürgen Aschoff, one of the founders of the field of chronobiology. His work demonstrated the existence of endogenous (internal) biological clocks, which synchronize biological rhythms. In addition, he found that certain exogenous (external) cues, which he called zeitgeber, influence the timing of these internal clocks.
Photic and nonphotic zeitgebers Light, the most potent regulator of circadian rhythms Atmospheric conditions Medication Temperature Social interactions Exercise Eating/drinking patterns
Circadian rhythms Any biological process in the body that repeats itself over a period of approximately 24 hours and maintains this rhythm in the absence of external stimuli is considered a circadian rhythm. It is believed that the brain's suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN), or internal pacemaker, is responsible for regulating the body's biological rhythms, influenced by a combination of internal and external cues. To maintain synchrony between the internal clock and the external environment, zeitgebers, such as the sun rising, cause wakefulness in humans. This ability to align behaviors such as feeding and activity to the external environmental cycle is a process called entrainment. Biological rhythms, including cycles related to sleep and wakefulness, mood, and cognitive performance, are synchronized with the body's internal circadian clock. The best way to observe the workings of this clock is to experimentally deprive individuals of external cues like light and social interaction and allow the body to experience a "free-running" environment – that is, one in which there are no zeitgebers to influence the body's rhythms. Under these circumstances, the circadian clock alone modulates the body's biological rhythms. Normally however, external cues like light-dark cycles and social interactions also exert an influence on the body's rhythms. These zeitgebers do so by alerting individuals to changes in the likelihood of possible rewards or threats in the environment, or allow individuals to anticipate predictable changes in their environment. For example, mice, which are prey organisms, are inactive during the day to avoid predation from predators, which are more active during the day. There is also increased competition for resources during the day, so mice will start to become active as night approaches to both successfully obtain resources for survival and avoid predation. Early research into circadian rhythms demonstrated that, when humans are without zeitgebers, or in constant lighting conditions, they have a "free running" period of 24.9 hours. In this experiment, humans were in an underground, sound-proof bunker where the lights were continuously on. The subjects prepared their own meals and took their own samples, so there were no social interaction cues either. Humans therefore adjust from 24.9 hr internal rhythm to the 24-hour day. There are many different zeitgebers, and their relative influence on an individual at any given time depends on a number of factors, time of day the zeitgeber is presented and the intensity of that zeitgeber. For example, Jürgen Aschoff showed that individuals can compensate for the absence of some zeitgebers like natural light by attending to social zeitgebers instead. Specifically, individuals placed in total darkness for four days did not differ on a variety of measures, including body temperature and various psychomotor tasks like time estimation and finger tapping, from individuals placed in an artificial light-dark environment when both groups were given the same strict time schedule. Researchers concluded that social zeitgebers, like meal times and interactions with other people, can entrain biological rhythms in ways similar to those of other common zeitgebers like light.
Psychological effects of changes Since the internal clock sets itself using zeitgebers, the loss or disruption of an individual's usual zeitgebers can be very disorienting. When an individual experiences significant changes in zeitgebers, such as being irregularly scheduled for the night shift, those changes can have a variety of negative effects. One example of this phenomenon is jetlag, in which traveling to another time zone causes desynchronization in sleep-wake cycles, appetite, and emotions. Such zeitgeber disruptions can also lead to decreased cognitive performance, negative mood, and in some cases, episodes of mental illness.
Cognitive performance Researchers have shown that the 24-hour circadian clock also influences cognitive performance in a wide variety of paradigms, including serial search, verbal reasoning, working memory tasks, suppressing wrong answers, and manual dexterity. Performance on these tasks varies over the course of a day, with each type of task having a unique daily rhythm. For example, the best time to perform a working memory task tends to be midday, while immediate memory is best in the morning, and simple processing is ideally performed in the evening. In addition, individual differences among participants can have an effect on daily rhythms in performance. Studies have found that children perform mental math exercises most successfully in the morning, but young adults' performance peaks in the evening. This variation in the performance of various tasks is attributable to a number of factors, including relative working memory load, change in strategy, hemispheric dominance, ability to suppress wrong answers, age, level of practice, and morningness-eveningness, many of which fluctuate according to time of day. Based on these findings, researchers conclude that factors that disturb circadian rhythms can also affect cognitive performance.
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